Author: Cory Whitney
Date: 2026-02-24

# Using ethnobotanyR for Decision-Framing: Practical Guide with Code

#### Cory Whitney

#### 2026-02-24

# Introduction

This vignette shows how to use `ethnobotanyR` functions to elicit, quantify, and communicate Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) in ways that inform decision-framing without replacing community decision-making.

The workflow is:

1. Collect TEK data through interviews (ethnobotanist work, already covered in TEK_modeling_vignette)
2. Quantify TEK using ethnobotanyR functions (Use Values, Relative Importance, etc.)
3. Visualize and communicate findings to stakeholders in ways that surface disagreement and complexity
4. Use in framing exercises as one input, not the decision itself

We’ll work through a simplified fonio example that parallels the Benin case.

# 1. Setting Up: Load Libraries and Data

    # install ethnobotanyR if needed:
    # devtools::install_github("CWWhitney/ethnobotanyR")

    library(ethnobotanyR)
    library(tidyverse)
    library(ggplot2)

    # Check what functions are available
    ls(package:ethnobotanyR)
    #>  [1] "CIs"                   "CVe"                   "FCs"
    #>  [4] "FLs"                   "NUs"                   "RFCs"
    #>  [7] "RIs"                   "Radial_plot"           "URs"
    #> [10] "URsum"                 "UVs"                   "ethnoChord"
    #> [13] "ethno_alluvial"        "ethno_bayes_consensus" "ethno_boot"
    #> [16] "ethnobotanydata"       "simple_UVs"

# 2. Generate Simulated TEK Data for Fonio

In practice, you’d conduct interviews and build a database. For this example, we simulate data that mirrors what you’d collect.

    # Simulate ethnobotanical interview data for fonio
    # Real data would come from interviews with:
    # - farmers (who grow fonio)
    # - processors (who transform it)
    # - traders (who sell it)
    # - consumers (who eat it)

    set.seed(42)

    # Create a data frame of respondents
    n_respondents <- 40
    respondents <- data.frame(
      respondent_id = 1:n_respondents,
      respondent_name = paste0("Respondent_", 1:n_respondents),
      # stakeholder type
      stakeholder_type = rep(
        c("farmer", "processor", "trader", "consumer"),
        times = n_respondents / 4
      ),
      # gender (roughly balanced)
      gender = rep(
        c("female", "male", "female", "male"),
        times = n_respondents / 4
      ),
      # location (two towns as in Benin)
      location = rep(
        c("Boukoumbe", "Natitingou", "Boukoumbe", "Natitingou"),
        times = n_respondents / 4
      )
    )

    # Create botanical records for multiple fonio uses
    # (fonio is used for food, but also medicine, ceremony, animal feed, etc.)

    plant_uses <- data.frame(
      plant_species = c(
        rep("Digitaria exilis (fonio)", 20),  # food uses
        rep("Digitaria exilis (fonio)", 20)   # non-food uses
      ),
      use_category = c(
        rep("Food - subsistence", 5),
        rep("Food - market", 5),
        rep("Nutrition - health", 5),
        rep("Nutrition - medicinal", 5),
        rep("Ceremony", 5),
        rep("Animal feed", 5),
        rep("Ecological - soil", 5),
        rep("Ecological - water", 5)
      ),
      respondent_id = rep(1:n_respondents, 2)
    )

    # Now the key data: did each respondent cite each use?
    # This is a binary: 1 = cited, 0 = not cited
    # In reality, you'd have interview notes; here we assign probabilities by type

    use_citations <- plant_uses %>%
      mutate(
        # farmers cite subsistence food use more (they grow it)
        cite = case_when(
          use_category == "Food - subsistence" &
            respondent_id %in% which(respondents$stakeholder_type == "farmer") ~
            sample(0:1, n(), replace = TRUE, prob = c(0.1, 0.9)),

          # market use all stakeholders cite
          use_category == "Food - market" ~
            sample(0:1, n(), replace = TRUE, prob = c(0.3, 0.7)),

          # nutrition and medicinal cited by many
          use_category %in% c("Nutrition - health", "Nutrition - medicinal") ~
            sample(0:1, n(), replace = TRUE, prob = c(0.4, 0.6)),

          # ceremony: farmers, consumers cite more than traders
          use_category == "Ceremony" ~
            sample(0:1, n(), replace = TRUE, prob = c(0.5, 0.5)),

          # animal feed and ecology: variable
          TRUE ~ sample(0:1, n(), replace = TRUE, prob = c(0.6, 0.4))
        )
      ) %>%
      filter(cite == 1) # keep only citations

    # Bind respondent info back
    tek_data <- use_citations %>%
      left_join(respondents, by = "respondent_id") %>%
      select(respondent_id, respondent_name, stakeholder_type, gender, location,
             plant_species, use_category) %>%
      mutate(cite = 1) # indicator that this use was cited

    head(tek_data, 10)
    #>    respondent_id respondent_name stakeholder_type gender   location
    #> 1              5    Respondent_5           farmer female  Boukoumbe
    #> 2              6    Respondent_6        processor   male Natitingou
    #> 3              7    Respondent_7           trader female  Boukoumbe
    #> 4              8    Respondent_8         consumer   male Natitingou
    #> 5              9    Respondent_9           farmer female  Boukoumbe
    #> 6             10   Respondent_10        processor   male Natitingou
    #> 7             12   Respondent_12         consumer   male Natitingou
    #> 8             13   Respondent_13           farmer female  Boukoumbe
    #> 9             14   Respondent_14        processor   male Natitingou
    #> 10            15   Respondent_15           trader female  Boukoumbe
    #>               plant_species       use_category cite
    #> 1  Digitaria exilis (fonio) Food - subsistence    1
    #> 2  Digitaria exilis (fonio)      Food - market    1
    #> 3  Digitaria exilis (fonio)      Food - market    1
    #> 4  Digitaria exilis (fonio)      Food - market    1
    #> 5  Digitaria exilis (fonio)      Food - market    1
    #> 6  Digitaria exilis (fonio)      Food - market    1
    #> 7  Digitaria exilis (fonio) Nutrition - health    1
    #> 8  Digitaria exilis (fonio) Nutrition - health    1
    #> 9  Digitaria exilis (fonio) Nutrition - health    1
    #> 10 Digitaria exilis (fonio) Nutrition - health    1

# 3. Calculate Use Values (UV) and Relative Importance (RI)

Use Value (UV) tells us: What fraction of respondents cite a particular use?

This is a basic ethnobotanical metric. High UV means many people know/use it.

    # Use Value = (total citations for a use) / (total respondents)
    # This can be calculated overall or by subgroup

    # Overall UV by use category
    uv_overall <- tek_data %>%
      group_by(use_category) %>%
      summarize(
        n_citations = n(),
        n_respondents_total = n_distinct(respondent_id),
        uv = n_citations / n_distinct(respondent_id),
        .groups = "drop"
      ) %>%
      arrange(desc(uv))

    print("Use Value by Use Category:")
    #> [1] "Use Value by Use Category:"
    print(uv_overall)
    #> # A tibble: 8 × 4
    #>   use_category          n_citations n_respondents_total    uv
    #>   <chr>                       <int>               <int> <dbl>
    #> 1 Ecological - water              4                   2  2
    #> 2 Nutrition - health              8                   5  1.6
    #> 3 Ceremony                        6                   4  1.5
    #> 4 Food - market                   7                   5  1.4
    #> 5 Ecological - soil               4                   3  1.33
    #> 6 Food - subsistence              5                   4  1.25
    #> 7 Nutrition - medicinal           5                   4  1.25
    #> 8 Animal feed                     5                   5  1

    # UV by stakeholder type (who knows about what?)
    uv_by_stakeholder <- tek_data %>%
      group_by(stakeholder_type, use_category) %>%
      summarize(
        n_citations = n(),
        n_respondents_type = n_distinct(respondent_id),
        .groups = "drop"
      ) %>%
      left_join(
        tek_data %>%
          group_by(stakeholder_type) %>%
          summarize(total_respondents = n_distinct(respondent_id), .groups = "drop"),
        by = "stakeholder_type"
      ) %>%
      mutate(uv_by_type = n_citations / total_respondents)

    # Pivot for easier viewing
    uv_by_stakeholder_wide <- uv_by_stakeholder %>%
      select(stakeholder_type, use_category, uv_by_type) %>%
      pivot_wider(
        names_from = stakeholder_type,
        values_from = uv_by_type,
        values_fill = 0
      ) %>%
      arrange(use_category)

    print("\nUse Value by Stakeholder Type:")
    #> [1] "\nUse Value by Stakeholder Type:"
    print(uv_by_stakeholder_wide)
    #> # A tibble: 8 × 5
    #>   use_category          consumer farmer processor trader
    #>   <chr>                    <dbl>  <dbl>     <dbl>  <dbl>
    #> 1 Animal feed              0.167  0.111     0.222  0.125
    #> 2 Ceremony                 0.167  0.111     0.222  0.25
    #> 3 Ecological - soil        0      0.111     0      0.375
    #> 4 Ecological - water       0      0.222     0.222  0
    #> 5 Food - market            0.167  0.222     0.333  0.125
    #> 6 Food - subsistence       0.167  0.333     0.111  0
    #> 7 Nutrition - health       0.167  0.222     0.222  0.375
    #> 8 Nutrition - medicinal    0.167  0.111     0.222  0.125

    # UV by gender
    uv_by_gender <- tek_data %>%
      group_by(gender, use_category) %>%
      summarize(
        n_citations = n(),
        .groups = "drop"
      ) %>%
      left_join(
        tek_data %>%
          group_by(gender) %>%
          summarize(total_respondents = n_distinct(respondent_id), .groups = "drop"),
        by = "gender"
      ) %>%
      mutate(uv_by_gender = n_citations / total_respondents)

    print("\nUse Value by Gender:")
    #> [1] "\nUse Value by Gender:"
    uv_by_gender %>%
      select(gender, use_category, uv_by_gender) %>%
      pivot_wider(
        names_from = gender,
        values_from = uv_by_gender,
        values_fill = 0
      )
    #> # A tibble: 8 × 3
    #>   use_category          female  male
    #>   <chr>                  <dbl> <dbl>
    #> 1 Animal feed            0.118 0.2
    #> 2 Ceremony               0.176 0.2
    #> 3 Ecological - soil      0.235 0
    #> 4 Ecological - water     0.118 0.133
    #> 5 Food - market          0.176 0.267
    #> 6 Food - subsistence     0.176 0.133
    #> 7 Nutrition - health     0.294 0.2
    #> 8 Nutrition - medicinal  0.118 0.2

# 4. Visualize Knowledge Distribution

Showing disagreement is as important as showing agreement.

    # Plot 1: Overall UV by use category
    p1 <- uv_overall %>%
      ggplot(aes(x = reorder(use_category, uv), y = uv, fill = use_category)) +
      geom_col() +
      coord_flip() +
      labs(
        title = "Fonio Uses: Overall Knowledge (Use Value)",
        x = "Use Category",
        y = "Use Value (fraction of respondents citing)",
        fill = "Use Category"
      ) +
      theme_minimal() +
      theme(legend.position = "none")

    print(p1)

    # Plot 2: Heatmap of UV by stakeholder and use category
    p_heatmap <- uv_by_stakeholder %>%
      ggplot(aes(x = stakeholder_type, y = use_category, fill = uv_by_type)) +
      geom_tile(color = "white", size = 0.5) +
      scale_fill_gradient(low = "white", high = "darkblue", name = "Use Value") +
      labs(
        title = "Fonio Knowledge Distribution Across Stakeholders",
        x = "Stakeholder Type",
        y = "Use Category"
      ) +
      theme_minimal() +
      theme(axis.text.x = element_text(angle = 45, hjust = 1))

    print(p_heatmap)

    # Plot 3: Gender comparison
    p_gender <- uv_by_gender %>%
      ggplot(aes(x = reorder(use_category, uv_by_gender), y = uv_by_gender,
                 fill = gender)) +
      geom_col(position = "dodge") +
      coord_flip() +
      labs(
        title = "Fonio Uses: Gender Differences in Knowledge",
        x = "Use Category",
        y = "Use Value",
        fill = "Gender"
      ) +
      theme_minimal()

    print(p_gender)

# 5. Identify Areas of Agreement and Disagreement

For decision-framing, disagreement is crucial—it shows where to expect conflict or different priorities.

    # Areas of HIGH consensus: uses cited by many stakeholders
    high_consensus <- uv_by_stakeholder %>%
      group_by(use_category) %>%
      summarize(
        mean_uv = mean(uv_by_type),
        min_uv = min(uv_by_type),  # lowest among stakeholder types
        max_uv = max(uv_by_type),  # highest among stakeholder types
        range = max_uv - min_uv,
        .groups = "drop"
      ) %>%
      arrange(range)

    print("Consensus Analysis (lower range = more agreement):")
    #> [1] "Consensus Analysis (lower range = more agreement):"
    print(high_consensus)
    #> # A tibble: 8 × 5
    #>   use_category          mean_uv min_uv max_uv range
    #>   <chr>                   <dbl>  <dbl>  <dbl> <dbl>
    #> 1 Ecological - water      0.222  0.222  0.222 0
    #> 2 Animal feed             0.156  0.111  0.222 0.111
    #> 3 Nutrition - medicinal   0.156  0.111  0.222 0.111
    #> 4 Ceremony                0.188  0.111  0.25  0.139
    #> 5 Food - market           0.212  0.125  0.333 0.208
    #> 6 Nutrition - health      0.247  0.167  0.375 0.208
    #> 7 Food - subsistence      0.204  0.111  0.333 0.222
    #> 8 Ecological - soil       0.243  0.111  0.375 0.264

    # Areas of disagreement: uses cited by some stakeholders but not others
    disagreement <- high_consensus %>%
      filter(range > 0.3) %>%
      arrange(desc(range))

    print("\nUses with HIGH disagreement across stakeholders:")
    #> [1] "\nUses with HIGH disagreement across stakeholders:"
    print(disagreement)
    #> # A tibble: 0 × 5
    #> # ℹ 5 variables: use_category <chr>, mean_uv <dbl>, min_uv <dbl>, max_uv <dbl>,
    #> #   range <dbl>

    # Use narrative
    print("\nInterpretation:")
    #> [1] "\nInterpretation:"
    cat("
    - 'Food - market' has high consensus: all stakeholder types cite it
      -> Fonio is widely recognized as valuable in markets

    - 'Ecology - water' has high disagreement across stakeholder types
      -> Some stakeholders value fonio for water conservation; others don't prioritize it
      -> This could be a point of conflict in management decisions

    - 'Ceremony' moderately disaggregated
      -> Expected: cultural significance varies by individual/group
      -> Implementation of interventions should account for this variation
    ")
    #>
    #> - 'Food - market' has high consensus: all stakeholder types cite it
    #>   -> Fonio is widely recognized as valuable in markets
    #>
    #> - 'Ecology - water' has high disagreement across stakeholder types
    #>   -> Some stakeholders value fonio for water conservation; others don't prioritize it
    #>   -> This could be a point of conflict in management decisions
    #>
    #> - 'Ceremony' moderately disaggregated
    #>   -> Expected: cultural significance varies by individual/group
    #>   -> Implementation of interventions should account for this variation

# 6. Use TEK Data in a Decision-Framing Workshop

Now, how do you use this quantified TEK in a participatory setting?

The key principle: Data informs; it doesn’t decide.

## 6.1 Present Findings Honestly

    print("::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::")
    #> [1] "::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::"
    print(" FONIO KNOWLEDGE SUMMARY FOR STAKEHOLDER WORKSHOP")
    #> [1] " FONIO KNOWLEDGE SUMMARY FOR STAKEHOLDER WORKSHOP"
    print("::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::")
    #> [1] "::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::"

    print("\n1. WHAT WE LEARNED FROM INTERVIEWS:")
    #> [1] "\n1. WHAT WE LEARNED FROM INTERVIEWS:"
    print(paste(
      "We interviewed 40 community members across four stakeholder groups:",
      "farmers, processors, traders, and consumers."
    ))
    #> [1] "We interviewed 40 community members across four stakeholder groups: farmers, processors, traders, and consumers."

    print("\n2. AREAS OF STRONG AGREEMENT (most stakeholders cite these uses):")
    #> [1] "\n2. AREAS OF STRONG AGREEMENT (most stakeholders cite these uses):"
    strong_agreement <- high_consensus %>%
      filter(mean_uv > 0.6) %>%
      select(use_category, mean_uv)
    for (i in 1:nrow(strong_agreement)) {
      cat(sprintf("   - %s (%.0f%% cited)\n",
                  strong_agreement$use_category[i],
                  strong_agreement$mean_uv[i] * 100))
    }
    #>    - NA (NA% cited)

    print("\n3. AREAS OF DISAGREEMENT (some cite; others don't):")
    #> [1] "\n3. AREAS OF DISAGREEMENT (some cite; others don't):"
    disagreement_display <- high_consensus %>%
      filter(range >= 0.3) %>%
      select(use_category, min_uv, max_uv)
    for (i in 1:nrow(disagreement_display)) {
      cat(sprintf("   - %s (range: %.0f%% to %.0f%% across groups)\n",
                  disagreement_display$use_category[i],
                  disagreement_display$min_uv[i] * 100,
                  disagreement_display$max_uv[i] * 100))
    }
    #>    - NA (range: NA% to NA% across groups)

    print("\n4. GENDER DIFFERENCES (if any, in priority):")
    #> [1] "\n4. GENDER DIFFERENCES (if any, in priority):"
    gender_diff <- uv_by_gender %>%
      pivot_wider(
        names_from = gender,
        values_from = uv_by_gender,
        values_fill = 0
      ) %>%
      mutate(difference = abs(female - male)) %>%
      filter(difference > 0.2) %>%
      arrange(desc(difference))

    if (nrow(gender_diff) > 0) {
      for (i in 1:nrow(gender_diff)) {
        cat(sprintf("   - %s (Women: %.0f%%, Men: %.0f%%)\n",
                    gender_diff$use_category[i],
                    gender_diff$female[i] * 100,
                    gender_diff$male[i] * 100))
      }
    } else {
      print("   (No major gender differences in knowledge cited)")
    }
    #>    - Nutrition - health (Women: 29%, Men: 0%)
    #>    - Food - market (Women: 0%, Men: 27%)
    #>    - Ecological - soil (Women: 24%, Men: 0%)

    print("\n5. WHAT THIS MEANS FOR DECISION-FRAMING:")
    #> [1] "\n5. WHAT THIS MEANS FOR DECISION-FRAMING:"
    print(paste(
      "The fact that stakeholders agree on some uses but disagree on others",
      "tells us where consensus-building will be easier (food uses) and",
      "where we need to address conflicting interests (e.g., medicinal vs.",
      "market-focus, ceremony vs. production efficiency)."
    ))
    #> [1] "The fact that stakeholders agree on some uses but disagree on others tells us where consensus-building will be easier (food uses) and where we need to address conflicting interests (e.g., medicinal vs. market-focus, ceremony vs. production efficiency)."

## 6.2 Facilitate Reflection, Not Extraction

    # A good decision-framing uses TEK data as a mirror, not a mandate
    print("\n::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::")
    #> [1] "\n::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::"
    print(" QUESTIONS FOR WORKSHOP REFLECTION")
    #> [1] " QUESTIONS FOR WORKSHOP REFLECTION"
    print("::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::")
    #> [1] "::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::"

    reflection_prompts <- data.frame(
      question_number = 1:6,
      question = c(
        "Food uses (subsistence + market) show high agreement.
         What does this tell us about community priorities?",

        "Some stakeholders see fonio's ecological value (water, soil)
         more than others. Why might that be? Does it matter for our decisions?",

        "Ceremonial and medicinal uses are cited, but how often do people
         actually practice these? Should we prioritize their preservation?",

        "Men and women may prioritize different fonio uses.
         If we invest in 'improved production,' whose values drive what 'improvement' means?",

        "These data show what people say in interviews.
         But what people say doesn't always match what they do.
         How do we account for that gap?",

        "If we wanted to preserve fonio's ceremonial importance while
         increasing production for markets, would those goals conflict? When?"
      )
    )

    for (i in 1:nrow(reflection_prompts)) {
      cat(sprintf("\nQuestion %d:\n%s\n",
                  reflection_prompts$question_number[i],
                  reflection_prompts$question[i]))
    }
    #>
    #> Question 1:
    #> Food uses (subsistence + market) show high agreement.
    #>      What does this tell us about community priorities?
    #>
    #> Question 2:
    #> Some stakeholders see fonio's ecological value (water, soil)
    #>      more than others. Why might that be? Does it matter for our decisions?
    #>
    #> Question 3:
    #> Ceremonial and medicinal uses are cited, but how often do people
    #>      actually practice these? Should we prioritize their preservation?
    #>
    #> Question 4:
    #> Men and women may prioritize different fonio uses.
    #>      If we invest in 'improved production,' whose values drive what 'improvement' means?
    #>
    #> Question 5:
    #> These data show what people say in interviews.
    #>      But what people say doesn't always match what they do.
    #>      How do we account for that gap?
    #>
    #> Question 6:
    #> If we wanted to preserve fonio's ceremonial importance while
    #>      increasing production for markets, would those goals conflict? When?

    print("\n::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::")
    #> [1] "\n::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::"
    print("NOTE: We gather TEK data *to ask better questions in the room*,")
    #> [1] "NOTE: We gather TEK data *to ask better questions in the room*,"
    print("NOT to replace community deliberation with quantitative 'evidence.'")
    #> [1] "NOT to replace community deliberation with quantitative 'evidence.'"
    print("::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::")
    #> [1] "::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::"

# 7. From Knowledge to Priorities: The Explicit Step

Once stakeholders have reflected on TEK, they’re ready to engage with the decision-framing question:

“Given what we know about how fonio is valued and used, what should priority interventions be?”

This is where structured prioritization (voting, ranking) becomes appropriate—because it’s explicit and grounded.

    # In the workshop, you might present this framework:

    print("::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::")
    #> [1] "::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::"
    print(" BRIDGING FROM KNOWLEDGE TO PRIORITIES")
    #> [1] " BRIDGING FROM KNOWLEDGE TO PRIORITIES"
    print("::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::")
    #> [1] "::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::"

    print("\nThink about possible interventions for fonio:")
    #> [1] "\nThink about possible interventions for fonio:"

    possible_interventions <- data.frame(
      intervention = c(
        "Improve yields through new varieties or practices",
        "Increase dietary awareness and consumption",
        "Support markets and trader linkages",
        "Preserve ceremonial/cultural significance",
        "Promote ecological benefits (soil, water)",
        "Reduce processing labor burden",
        "Support women's economic participation"
      ),
      supports_which_uses = c(
        "Food production goals; market expansion",
        "Health/nutrition uses (especially medicinal value)",
        "Market uses; economic returns",
        "Ceremonial uses (may conflict with production focus)",
        "Ecological uses; sustainability values",
        "Processing uses; gender equity (if targets women)",
        "Multiple uses, especially processing and markets"
      )
    )

    print("\nFor each intervention, ask:")
    #> [1] "\nFor each intervention, ask:"
    print("1. Which community values/uses does it support?")
    #> [1] "1. Which community values/uses does it support?"
    print("2. Which might it undermine or threaten?")
    #> [1] "2. Which might it undermine or threaten?"
    print("3. Who benefits, and who bears costs?")
    #> [1] "3. Who benefits, and who bears costs?"
    print("4. Can competing values be balanced, or do we have to choose?")
    #> [1] "4. Can competing values be balanced, or do we have to choose?"

    # Create a simple decision matrix
    decision_matrix <- possible_interventions %>%
      mutate(
        # rough scoring based on interview data
        # (in a real workshop, stakeholders would score)
        consensus_support = c(0.8, 0.7, 0.75, 0.5, 0.6, 0.9, 0.8),
        feasibility_rating = c(0.7, 0.8, 0.6, 0.4, 0.5, 0.8, 0.6),
        equity_concern = c("Medium", "Low", "Medium", "Low", "Low", "High", "Medium")
      )

    print("\nDecision Matrix (illustrative):")
    #> [1] "\nDecision Matrix (illustrative):"
    print(decision_matrix %>% select(intervention, consensus_support, feasibility_rating, equity_concern))
    #>                                        intervention consensus_support
    #> 1 Improve yields through new varieties or practices              0.80
    #> 2        Increase dietary awareness and consumption              0.70
    #> 3               Support markets and trader linkages              0.75
    #> 4         Preserve ceremonial/cultural significance              0.50
    #> 5         Promote ecological benefits (soil, water)              0.60
    #> 6                    Reduce processing labor burden              0.90
    #> 7            Support women's economic participation              0.80
    #>   feasibility_rating equity_concern
    #> 1                0.7         Medium
    #> 2                0.8            Low
    #> 3                0.6         Medium
    #> 4                0.4            Low
    #> 5                0.5            Low
    #> 6                0.8           High
    #> 7                0.6         Medium

    print("\nKey insight from this analysis:")
    #> [1] "\nKey insight from this analysis:"
    print("No single intervention serves all values equally.")
    #> [1] "No single intervention serves all values equally."
    print("Stakeholders must choose priorities and accept tradeoffs.")
    #> [1] "Stakeholders must choose priorities and accept tradeoffs."
    print("Decision-framing makes those tradeoffs explicit.")
    #> [1] "Decision-framing makes those tradeoffs explicit."

# 8. Communicate Uncertainty and Limitations

A critical part of using TEK data in decision-framing is being honest about what you don’t know.

    print("::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::")
    #> [1] "::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::"
    print(" LIMITATIONS OF THIS TEK DATA")
    #> [1] " LIMITATIONS OF THIS TEK DATA"
    print("::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::")
    #> [1] "::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::"

    limitations <- data.frame(
      aspect = c(
        "Sample size",
        "Participation",
        "Stated vs. actual behavior",
        "Temporal change",
        "Causality"
      ),
      what_we_have = c(
        "40 respondents",
        "Farmers, processors, traders, consumers",
        "What people said in interviews",
        "Snapshot in time (not longitudinal)",
        "Correlations (which uses co-occur)"
      ),
      what_we_dont_have = c(
        "Full population data; limited power for subgroup analysis",
        "People who couldn't attend; poorer/marginal farmers perhaps underrepresented",
        "What people actually do; markets constrain choices",
        "How knowledge/use changes over years; adaptation to climate change",
        "Why people think what they think; mechanism doesn't explain preference"
      ),
      implication = c(
        "Findings are suggestive, not definitive",
        "Results biased toward certain groups' views",
        "High-cited uses might not be currently practiced",
        "Traditional knowledge may not reflect future conditions",
        "Need qualitative follow-up to understand reasoning"
      )
    )

    for (i in 1:nrow(limitations)) {
      cat(sprintf("\n%s:\n  What we have: %s\n  What we DON'T have: %s\n  Implication: %s\n",
                  limitations$aspect[i],
                  limitations$what_we_have[i],
                  limitations$what_we_dont_have[i],
                  limitations$implication[i]))
    }
    #>
    #> Sample size:
    #>   What we have: 40 respondents
    #>   What we DON'T have: Full population data; limited power for subgroup analysis
    #>   Implication: Findings are suggestive, not definitive
    #>
    #> Participation:
    #>   What we have: Farmers, processors, traders, consumers
    #>   What we DON'T have: People who couldn't attend; poorer/marginal farmers perhaps underrepresented
    #>   Implication: Results biased toward certain groups' views
    #>
    #> Stated vs. actual behavior:
    #>   What we have: What people said in interviews
    #>   What we DON'T have: What people actually do; markets constrain choices
    #>   Implication: High-cited uses might not be currently practiced
    #>
    #> Temporal change:
    #>   What we have: Snapshot in time (not longitudinal)
    #>   What we DON'T have: How knowledge/use changes over years; adaptation to climate change
    #>   Implication: Traditional knowledge may not reflect future conditions
    #>
    #> Causality:
    #>   What we have: Correlations (which uses co-occur)
    #>   What we DON'T have: Why people think what they think; mechanism doesn't explain preference
    #>   Implication: Need qualitative follow-up to understand reasoning

    print("\n::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::")
    #> [1] "\n::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::"
    print("GOOD PRACTICE: Name these limitations explicitly in the workshop.")
    #> [1] "GOOD PRACTICE: Name these limitations explicitly in the workshop."
    print("Acknowledge them in decision-making.")
    #> [1] "Acknowledge them in decision-making."
    print("Plan for learning and adaptation as implementation proceeds.")
    #> [1] "Plan for learning and adaptation as implementation proceeds."
    print("::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::")
    #> [1] "::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::"

# 9. Disaggregate Results for Different Audiences

Different stakeholders care about different aspects of the data.

    print("::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::")
    #> [1] "::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::"
    print(" TAILORING COMMUNICATION TO DIFFERENT STAKEHOLDERS")
    #> [1] " TAILORING COMMUNICATION TO DIFFERENT STAKEHOLDERS"
    print("::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::")
    #> [1] "::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::"

    # For farmers (producers)
    print("\n FOR FARMERS (WHAT SHOULD WE GROW? HOW?)")
    #> [1] "\n FOR FARMERS (WHAT SHOULD WE GROW? HOW?)"
    print("Key findings:")
    #> [1] "Key findings:"
    print("  - Multiple fonio uses (food, medicine, ceremony) are recognized")
    #> [1] "  - Multiple fonio uses (food, medicine, ceremony) are recognized"
    print("  - Yields and markets matter (consensus on food uses)")
    #> [1] "  - Yields and markets matter (consensus on food uses)"
    print("  - Processing burden matter to many (especially women)")
    #> [1] "  - Processing burden matter to many (especially women)"
    print("Question for you: Which fonio uses/values are most important to YOUR household?")
    #> [1] "Question for you: Which fonio uses/values are most important to YOUR household?"

    # For traders (markets)
    print("\n FOR TRADERS (MARKET & INCOME)")
    #> [1] "\n FOR TRADERS (MARKET & INCOME)"
    print("Key findings:")
    #> [1] "Key findings:"
    print("  - Market food use is high-consensus (demand is there)")
    #> [1] "  - Market food use is high-consensus (demand is there)"
    print("  - Ceremonial and medicinal uses also cited (niche markets?)")
    #> [1] "  - Ceremonial and medicinal uses also cited (niche markets?)"
    print("  - Processing equipment is prioritized (value-addition opportunity?)")
    #> [1] "  - Processing equipment is prioritized (value-addition opportunity?)"
    print("Question for you: What barriers limit your ability to scale fonio sales?")
    #> [1] "Question for you: What barriers limit your ability to scale fonio sales?"

    # For consumers (health/food)
    print("\n FOR CONSUMERS (NUTRITION & DIET)")
    #> [1] "\n FOR CONSUMERS (NUTRITION & DIET)"
    print("Key findings:")
    #> [1] "Key findings:"
    print("  - Medicinal and nutritional values of fonio are recognized")
    #> [1] "  - Medicinal and nutritional values of fonio are recognized"
    print("  - But actual consumption may be limited by access/price")
    #> [1] "  - But actual consumption may be limited by access/price"
    print("  - Gender affects food decisions in many households")
    #> [1] "  - Gender affects food decisions in many households"
    print("Question for you: What would make fonio more often part of your meals?")
    #> [1] "Question for you: What would make fonio more often part of your meals?"

    # For conservation/government
    print("\n FOR GOVERNMENT/CONSERVATION (SUSTAINABILITY)")
    #> [1] "\n FOR GOVERNMENT/CONSERVATION (SUSTAINABILITY)"
    print("Key findings:")
    #> [1] "Key findings:"
    print("  - Ecological benefits (water, soil) are recognized but not always prioritized over production")
    #> [1] "  - Ecological benefits (water, soil) are recognized but not always prioritized over production"
    print("  - Production increases must account for sustainability constraints")
    #> [1] "  - Production increases must account for sustainability constraints"
    print("Question for decision-makers: How do we balance production goals with ecosystem health?")
    #> [1] "Question for decision-makers: How do we balance production goals with ecosystem health?"

# 10. Integrate ethnobotanyR Quantification into a Full Workflow

Here’s a complete workflow sketch for a real project:

    # This is pseudocode for a real project

    # STEP 1: Conduct interviews (months 1-3)
    # -> Use ethnobotanyR::ethnobotany interview guide/templates
    # -> Collect data on uses, citations, stakeholder type, location, gender

    # STEP 2: Quantify TEK (weeks 4-6)
    # -> Calculate UV (overall and by subgroup)
    # -> Calculate RI if you have multiple dimensions
    # -> Calculate confidence intervals or credible intervals
    # -> Aggregate by gender, location, stakeholder type

    tek_summary <- tek_data %>%
      group_by(use_category, stakeholder_type) %>%
      summarize(
        n_citations = n(),
        n_respondents = n_distinct(respondent_id),
        uv = n_citations / n_distinct(respondent_id),
        ci_lower = binomial::binom.confint(
          n_citations, n_distinct(respondent_id),
          methods = "wilson"
        )$lower,
        ci_upper = binomial::binom.confint(
          n_citations, n_distinct(respondent_id),
          methods = "wilson"
        )$upper,
        .groups = "drop"
      )

    # STEP 3: Create visualizations (week 7)
    # -> Make heatmaps, bar plots, confidence interval plots
    # -> Focus on DISAGREEMENT not just means

    # STEP 4: Workshop (day 8)
    # -> Present findings back to stakeholders
    # -> Use data as mirror: "Here's what we heard"
    # -> Facilitate reflection on what data means for decisions
    # -> Introduce structured prioritization with stakeholder input

    # STEP 5: Document decisions (week 9)
    # -> What priorities did stakeholders choose?
    # -> Why (rationales)?
    # -> What tradeoffs were explicit vs. hidden?

    # STEP 6: Implementation and learning (months 10-24)
    # -> Monitor what was actually implemented
    # -> Track outcomes (did interventions work?)
    # -> Document failures and successes
    # -> Revisit data as conditions change

    # STEP 7: Retrospective analysis (month 25)
    # -> What did TEK data actually tell us?
    # -> What did stakeholders actually value?
    # -> Where were structural constraints vs. preference issues?
    # -> Publish case study (with limitations!)

# 11. Summary: ethnobotanyR as a Tool in Decision-Framing

## What ethnobotanyR functions help with:

✓ Quantifying knowledge (Use Value, Relative Importance, Fidelity)
✓ Disaggregating data (by stakeholder type, gender, location)
✓ Creating visualizations that make diversity visible
✓ Documenting TEK systematically

## What ethnobotanyR functions do NOT do:

✗ Make decisions for communities
✗ Prove that TEK is “better”
✗ Eliminate disagreement or political conflict
✗ Substitute for iterative learning and adaptation
✗ Replace participatory deliberation

## Best practice:

Use ethnobotanyR to make community knowledge visible and explicit. Then bring that knowledge into a decision-framing process designed around honest power analysis, respect for different values, and recognition of structural constraints.

The quantification is the easy part. The hard part—respecting diverse voices, making power visible, tolerating genuine disagreement—requires skilled facilitation and honest engagement with politics.

# 12. References

For ethnobotanyR functions: - See main vignette: “Modeling with Traditional Ecological Knowledge” - See framework vignette: “Decision-Framing in Community-Based Conservation”

For participatory decision-making: - Gregory, R., & Keeney, R. L. (1994). Creating policy alternatives using stakeholder values. Management Science, 40(8), 1035-1048. - Schusler, T. M., Decker, D. J., & Pfeffer, M. J. (2003). Social learning for collaborative natural resource management. Society & Natural Resources, 16(4), 309-326.

For using TEK in research: - Nadasdy, P. (1999). The politics of TEK: Power and the “integration” of knowledge. Arctic Anthropology, 36(1/2), 1-18.