# Solver benchmarks

The `prioriactions R` package offers diverse optimization solvers, both academic and non-academic, to tackle mathematical models. Notably, it supports cutting-edge commercial optimization software such as `gurobi` and `CPLEX`, as well as non-academic alternatives like `CBC` and `symphony`. In the realm of supported solvers, `CPLEX` and `gurobi` generally stand out for their superior speed. It’s worth noting that while these are commercial tools, they do offer special academic licenses at no charge.

Depending on the intricacy of the management planning problem at hand, solvers based on open-source software may only marginally trail behind their commercial counterparts in terms of the speed and quality of the solutions. In the following analysis, we will explore and evaluate the performance of these different software options that `prioriactions` provides.

## Experimental settings

This analysis encompassed the generation of prioritizations through all solvers available in `prioriactions`, accompanied by measuring the time and quality of the solutions (gap) each solver required to complete the process. We explored a set of management planning problems characterized by distinct models (referred to as models (A), (B), (C)). Among the models considered, (C) stands out for being the largest model due to the incorporation of spatial connectivity requirements between actions (\(blm_k\) = 0.8). In contrast, model (B) entails connectivity solely between management units (\(blm\) = 0.8), while model (A) lacks any form of spatial requirement. Consequently, solving model (A) should be comparatively straightforward, given its absence of spatial constraints (further elaborated in Table below with model sizes). Also, we introduce variations in the target achievement levels (10%, 20%, 30%, and 40% respectively), thereby altering the inherent attributes of the models. All benchmark scenarios encompassed the Mitchell River case study presented, i.e. 2,316 planning units, 45 features, and 4 threats.

Model size (Variables, Constraints, Nonzeros elements in the constraint matrix) for different modelling scenarios.
Modelling_Setting | Variables | Constraints | Nonzeros
--- | --- | --- | ---
(A) \(blm = 0, blm_k = 0\) | 43180 | 37371 | 136566
(B) \(blm = 0.8, blm_k = 0\) | 61428 | 92115 | 264302
(C) \(blm = 0, blm_k = 0.8\) | 89150 | 175281 | 458356

Our experimental setup was conducted on a machine powered by an Intel Core i5-1240P 3.30GHz processor, paired with 16 GB of RAM LPDDR5-6400MHz, and running Ubuntu 22.04 LTS. Firstly, the `time_limit` parameter, which designates the maximum period the solver dedicates to pursuing an optimal solution, was set to 10,800 seconds, equivalent to a span of 3 hours. It is noteworthy that no constraint was placed on the gap to achieve (`gap_limit` = 0}), underscoring the aim of attaining the utmost optimal solution within the aforementioned three-hour timeframe. Secondly, the number of cores utilized was set to ten. Futhermore, we employed the most recent versions of all available optimizers within the `prioriactions` framework. Specifically, for `BM CPLEX`, we utilized version 22.1.1.0 in conjunction with `Rcplex` version 0.3.7. `Gurobi` was employed at version 10.0.0, while `Rcbc` was utilized at its version 0.1.0.9001. Additionally, for `symphony`, we leveraged `Rsymphony` with version 0.1-33 to ensure a comprehensive and up-to-date foundation for our analyses.

To derive these outcomes, we solely adjusted in the third step, involving the alteration of the solver’s name within the `solve()` function embedded in the `prioriactions` package.

    # solve the model
    solution <- solve(model, solver = "gurobi", gap_limit = 0, time_limit = 10800,
                      solution_limit = FALSE, cores = 10, output_file = TRUE, verbose = TRUE)

In the subsequent segments, we will offer distinct log outputs corresponding to each of the experimental solvers operating within scenario (A), where the recovery target is set at 10%. These log records will serve as illustrative examples, providing insight into the information presented throughout the optimization process.

### `Gurobi`

The logs follow a consistent structure, albeit with variations based on the information being presented and the manner of presentation. This structure can be succinctly summarized into four key sections: (i) optimizer settings; the initial part includes details about the settings and configurations of the optimizer (lines 1 to 8). (ii) presolve; to fine-tune the model. This step involves searching for the bounds associated with the relaxed solution (infeasible), among other tasks (lines 15 to 31). (iii) solutions search; entails an active pursuit of the optimal solution (or one of the optimal solutions, if multiple exist, lines 33 to 61). And, (iv) summary; summarises the entire optimization process, providing quality gaps and times, among other things (lines 63 to 69). In this particular instance, the optimal solution (with a gap of 0.00%) was successfully attained, yielding a value of 646, 10 seconds after the process started.

    1  Gurobi 10.0.0 (linux64, R) logging started dom 06 ago 2023 19:49:56
    2
    3  Set parameter Username
    4  Set parameter TimeLimit to value 10800
    5  Set parameter MIPGap to value 0
    6  Set parameter NodefileStart to value 0.5
    7  Set parameter LogFile to value "modelA_10_gurobi_log.txt"
    8  Set parameter Threads to value 10
    9  Academic license - for non-commercial use only - expires 2024-01-25
    10 Gurobi Optimizer version 10.0.0 build v10.0.0rc2 (linux64)
    11
    12 CPU model: 12th Gen Intel(R) Core(TM) i5-1240P, instruction set [SSE2|AVX|AVX2]
    13 Thread count: 16 physical cores, 16 logical processors, using up to 10 threads
    14
    15 Optimize a model with 37371 rows, 43180 columns and 136566 nonzeros
    16 Model fingerprint: 0x96123de4
    17 Variable types: 34965 continuous, 8215 integer (8215 binary)
    18 Coefficient statistics:
    19   Matrix range     [3e-01, 4e+00]
    20   Objective range  [1e+00, 1e+00]
    21   Bounds range     [1e+00, 1e+00]
    22   RHS range        [5e-01, 2e+02]
    23 Found heuristic solution: objective 7947.0000000
    24 Found heuristic solution: objective 4978.0000000
    25 Presolve removed 35017 rows and 35259 columns
    26 Presolve time: 0.15s
    27 Presolved: 2354 rows, 7921 columns, 66284 nonzeros
    28 Variable types: 0 continuous, 7921 integer (7904 binary)
    29 Found heuristic solution: objective 817.0000000
    30
    31 Root relaxation: objective 5.657750e+02, 3822 iterations, 0.05 seconds (0.26 work units)
    32
    33     Nodes    |    Current Node    |     Objective Bounds      |     Work
    34  Expl Unexpl |  Obj  Depth IntInf | Incumbent    BestBd   Gap | It/Node Time
    35
    36      0     0  565.77500    0  279  817.00000  565.77500  30.7%     -    0s
    37 H    0     0                     699.0000000  565.77500  19.1%     -    0s
    38 H    0     0                     663.0000000  565.77500  14.7%     -    0s
    39 H    0     0                     651.0000000  565.77500  13.1%     -    0s
    40      0     0  573.58333    0  399  651.00000  573.58333  11.9%     -    0s
    41      0     0  575.33333    0  387  651.00000  575.33333  11.6%     -    0s
    42      0     0  577.54167    0  457  651.00000  577.54167  11.3%     -    1s
    43      0     0  580.01543    0  429  651.00000  580.01543  10.9%     -    1s
    44 H    0     0                     647.0000000  580.51543  10.3%     -    1s
    45      0     0  580.51543    0  434  647.00000  580.51543  10.3%     -    1s
    46      0     0  580.51543    0  431  647.00000  580.51543  10.3%     -    1s
    47      0     0  590.16667    0  350  647.00000  590.16667  8.78%     -    1s
    48      0     0  590.26667    0  334  647.00000  590.26667  8.77%     -    1s
    49      0     0  590.26667    0  327  647.00000  590.26667  8.77%     -    1s
    50      0     0  599.85185    0  258  647.00000  599.85185  7.29%     -    1s
    51      0     0  603.87037    0  236  647.00000  603.87037  6.67%     -    1s
    52      0     0  614.47222    0  161  647.00000  614.47222  5.03%     -    1s
    53      0     0  614.47222    0  158  647.00000  614.47222  5.03%     -    1s
    54      0     0  614.72222    0  130  647.00000  614.72222  4.99%     -    1s
    55      0     0  614.72222    0  146  647.00000  614.72222  4.99%     -    1s
    56      0     0  614.72222    0  194  647.00000  614.72222  4.99%     -    1s
    57      0     0  614.72222    0  160  647.00000  614.72222  4.99%     -    2s
    58 H    0     0                     646.0000000  614.72222  4.84%     -    2s
    59      0     2  614.72222    0  160  646.00000  614.72222  4.84%     -    2s
    60   1966  2055  630.50000  123   31  646.00000  626.33333  3.04%   9.7    5s
    61   7481  7363  630.50000  460   43  646.00000  626.33333  3.04%   7.2   10s
    62
    63 Explored 8192 nodes (87667 simplex iterations) in 11.58 seconds (16.40 work units)
    64 Thread count was 10 (of 16 available processors)
    65
    66 Solution count 8: 646 647 651 ... 7947
    67
    68 Optimal solution found (tolerance 0.00e+00)
    69 Best objective 6.460000000000e+02, best bound 6.460000000000e+02, gap 0.0000%

### `CPLEX`

Similar to `gurobi`, the `CPLEX` log adheres closely to the outlined structure. Precisely, lines 3 to 9 correspond to (i), while lines 10 to 30 encompass (ii). Furthermore, lines 31 to 49 represent (iii), and lines 51 to 63 represent (iv). In this context, the optimal solution was swiftly identified within a mere 2.08 seconds while maintaining the identical objective value of 646.

    1  CPLEX environment opened
    2  Warning: The following options are not availables using cplex solver: output_file
    3  Rcplex: num variables=43180 num constraints=37371
    4  Version identifier: 22.1.1.0 | 2022-11-28 | 9160aff4d
    5  CPXPARAM_TimeLimit                               10800
    6  CPXPARAM_MIP_Tolerances_AbsMIPGap                0
    7  CPXPARAM_MIP_Tolerances_MIPGap                   0
    8  CPXPARAM_MIP_Pool_RelGap                         0
    9  CPXPARAM_MIP_Pool_AbsGap                         0
    10 Found incumbent of value 8215.000000 after 0.00 sec. (2.35 ticks)
    11 Tried aggregator 4 times.
    12 MIP Presolve eliminated 1402 rows and 300 columns.
    13 MIP Presolve added 2688 rows and 0 columns.
    14 MIP Presolve modified 354 coefficients.
    15 Aggregator did 34959 substitutions.
    16 Reduced MIP has 3698 rows, 7921 columns, and 67628 nonzeros.
    17 Reduced MIP has 7904 binaries, 17 generals, 0 SOSs, and 0 indicators.
    18 Presolve time = 0.39 sec. (1525.39 ticks)
    19 Probing time = 0.00 sec. (2.02 ticks)
    20 Tried aggregator 1 time.
    21 Detecting symmetries...
    22 Reduced MIP has 3698 rows, 7921 columns, and 67628 nonzeros.
    23 Reduced MIP has 7904 binaries, 17 generals, 0 SOSs, and 0 indicators.
    24 Presolve time = 0.03 sec. (51.39 ticks)
    25 Probing time = 0.01 sec. (2.02 ticks)
    26 Clique table members: 5591.
    27 MIP emphasis: balance optimality and feasibility.
    28 MIP search method: dynamic search.
    29 Parallel mode: deterministic, using up to 16 threads.
    30 Root relaxation solution time = 0.06 sec. (98.92 ticks)
    31         Nodes                                         Cuts/
    32    Node  Left     Objective  IInf  Best Integer    Best Bound    ItCnt     Gap
    33
    34 *     0+    0                         7947.0000        0.0000           100.00%
    35 *     0+    0                          925.0000        0.0000           100.00%
    36 *     0+    0                          768.0000        0.0000           100.00%
    37       0     0      566.4167   353      768.0000      566.4167     2719   26.25%
    38 *     0+    0                          766.0000      566.4167            26.06%
    39       0     0      577.0000   387      766.0000     Cuts: 453     3327   24.67%
    40 *     0+    0                          651.0000      577.0000            11.37%
    41       0     0      581.0833   361      651.0000     Cuts: 384     3778   10.74%
    42       0     0      592.9111   293      651.0000     Cuts: 356     4484    8.92%
    43 *     0+    0                          646.0000      592.9111             8.22%
    44       0     0  -1.00000e+75     0      646.0000      592.9111     4484    8.22%
    45       0     0      604.6852   207      646.0000     Cuts: 279     5004    6.40%
    46       0     0      608.2222   170      646.0000     Cuts: 189     5264    5.85%
    47       0     0      637.3333    13      646.0000     Cuts: 161     5393    1.34%
    48       0     0        cutoff            646.0000                   5406    0.00%
    49 Elapsed time = 2.07 sec. (2723.02 ticks, tree = 0.01 MB, solutions = 1)
    50
    51 Clique cuts applied:  447
    52 Cover cuts applied:  1269
    53 Mixed integer rounding cuts applied:  3
    54 Zero-half cuts applied:  56
    55
    56 Root node processing (before b&c):
    57   Real time             =    2.08 sec. (2724.47 ticks)
    58 Parallel b&c, 16 threads:
    59   Real time             =    0.00 sec. (0.00 ticks)
    60   Sync time (average)   =    0.00 sec.
    61   Wait time (average)   =    0.00 sec.
    62                           ------------
    63 Total (root+branch&cut) =    2.08 sec. (2724.47 ticks)

### `CBC`

In the case of `CBC` solver, the log provides an even higher specificity level than its counterparts in `gurobi` and `CPLEX`. In this instance, the breakdown is as follows: lines 5 to 11 correspond to (i), offering initial insights. Lines 12 to 66 delve into more intricate detailed aspects of presolve (ii). Subsequently, lines 67 to 80 represent (iii). Further along, lines 81 to 110 illustrate (iv). Note that we have employed a stopping criterion set at 3600 seconds. This decision stems from the understanding that with this non-academic solver, an optimal solution might not be attained within a shorter timeframe (as it indeed was the case). This approach ensures that we are able to present the complete structure of the log output comprehensively. Thus, an optimal solution was not reached (gap of 0.04%). Instead, we found a solution with an objective value of 653, marking a distinction from the previous solvers’ outcomes, which converged at 646.

    1   Welcome to the CBC MILP Solver
    2   Version: 2.10.5
    3   Build Date: Apr 21 2021
    4
    5   command line - problem -threads 10 -log 1 -verbose 15 -ratio 0 -sec 10800 -timem elapsed
    6   -heuristicsOnOff on -solve -quit (default strategy 1)
    7   verbose was changed from 0 to 15
    8   ratioGap was changed from 0 to 0
    9   seconds was changed from 1e+100 to 10800
    10   Option for timeMode changed from cpu to elapsed
    11  Option for heuristicsOnOff changed from off to on
    12  Continuous objective value is 563.542 - 8.95 seconds
    13  Cgl0004I processed model has 37313 rows, 42882 columns (7930 integer (7914 of which binary))
    14  and 136210 elements
    15  Cbc0038I Initial state - 372 integers unsatisfied sum - 123.042
    16  Cbc0038I Pass   1: (9.34 seconds) suminf.   79.66667 (242) obj. 604.667 iterations 720
    17  Cbc0038I Pass   2: (9.36 seconds) suminf.   78.16667 (239) obj. 606.167 iterations 3
    18  Cbc0038I Pass   3: (9.39 seconds) suminf.   71.16667 (218) obj. 620.167 iterations 21
    19  Cbc0038I Pass   4: (9.41 seconds) suminf.   63.83333 (196) obj. 634.833 iterations 22
    20  Cbc0038I Pass   5: (9.44 seconds) suminf.   56.16667 (173) obj. 650.167 iterations 23
    21  Cbc0038I Pass   6: (9.46 seconds) suminf.   46.50000 (144) obj. 669.5 iterations 29
    22  Cbc0038I Pass   7: (9.49 seconds) suminf.   38.16667 (119) obj. 686.167 iterations 25
    23  Cbc0038I Pass   8: (9.52 seconds) suminf.   33.83333 (106) obj. 694.833 iterations 13
    24  Cbc0038I Pass   9: (9.54 seconds) suminf.   25.50000 (81) obj. 711.5 iterations 25
    25  Cbc0038I Pass  10: (9.57 seconds) suminf.   18.16667 (59) obj. 726.167 iterations 22
    26  Cbc0038I Pass  11: (9.59 seconds) suminf.   13.16667 (44) obj. 736.167 iterations 15
    27  Cbc0038I Pass  12: (9.62 seconds) suminf.    7.50000 (27) obj. 747.5 iterations 17
    28  Cbc0038I Pass  13: (9.64 seconds) suminf.    1.16667 (7) obj. 761.167 iterations 20
    29  Cbc0038I Solution found of 767
    30  Cbc0038I Relaxing continuous gives 767
    31  Cbc0038I Cleaned solution of 767
    32  Cbc0038I Before mini branch and bound, 7554 integers at bound fixed and 31499 continuous
    33  Cbc0038I Full problem 37313 rows 42882 columns, reduced to 262 rows 253 columns
    34  Cbc0038I Mini branch and bound improved solution from 767 to 765 (9.83 seconds)
    35  Cbc0038I Round again with cutoff of 744.104
    36  Cbc0038I Pass  14: (9.91 seconds) suminf.   79.66667 (242) obj. 604.667 iterations 0
    37  Cbc0038I Pass  15: (9.94 seconds) suminf.   73.50000 (225) obj. 615.5 iterations 17
    38  Cbc0038I Pass  16: (9.96 seconds) suminf.   64.83333 (199) obj. 632.833 iterations 26
    39  Cbc0038I Pass  17: (9.99 seconds) suminf.   60.50000 (186) obj. 641.5 iterations 13
    40  Cbc0038I Pass  18: (10.01 seconds) suminf.   56.16667 (173) obj. 650.167 iterations 13
    41  Cbc0038I Pass  19: (10.04 seconds) suminf.   47.83333 (148) obj. 666.833 iterations 25
    42  Cbc0038I Pass  20: (10.07 seconds) suminf.   39.50000 (123) obj. 683.5 iterations 25
    43  Cbc0038I Pass  21: (10.09 seconds) suminf.   31.16667 (98) obj. 700.167 iterations 25
    44  Cbc0038I Pass  22: (10.12 seconds) suminf.   25.83333 (82) obj. 710.833 iterations 16
    45  Cbc0038I Pass  23: (10.14 seconds) suminf.   19.16667 (62) obj. 724.167 iterations 20
    46  Cbc0038I Pass  24: (10.17 seconds) suminf.    9.83333 (34) obj. 742.833 iterations 28
    47  Cbc0038I Pass  25: (10.21 seconds) suminf.   10.69574 (36) obj. 744.104 iterations 206
    48  Cbc0038I Pass  26: (10.24 seconds) suminf.   10.12908 (36) obj. 744.104 iterations 48
    49  Cbc0038I Pass  27: (10.28 seconds) suminf.    9.67908 (35) obj. 744.104 iterations 144
    50  Cbc0038I Pass  28: (10.31 seconds) suminf.   10.69574 (34) obj. 744.104 iterations 26
    51  Cbc0038I Pass  29: (10.34 seconds) suminf.   10.67908 (37) obj. 744.104 iterations 16
    52  Cbc0038I Pass  30: (10.36 seconds) suminf.   10.67908 (37) obj. 744.104 iterations 3
    53  Cbc0038I Pass  31: (10.62 seconds) suminf.   38.57092 (112) obj. 744.104 iterations 1444
    54  Cbc0038I Pass  32: (10.67 seconds) suminf.   37.19574 (109) obj. 744.104 iterations 231
    55  Cbc0038I Pass  33: (10.70 seconds) suminf.   36.59574 (107) obj. 744.104 iterations 159
    56  Cbc0038I Pass  34: (10.71 seconds) suminf.   36.59574 (107) obj. 744.104 iterations 0
    57  Cbc0038I Pass  35: (10.74 seconds) suminf.   36.52908 (107) obj. 744.104 iterations 29
    58  Cbc0038I Pass  36: (10.77 seconds) suminf.   36.26241 (106) obj. 744.104 iterations 82
    59  Cbc0038I Pass  37: (10.80 seconds) suminf.   36.19574 (106) obj. 744.104 iterations 115
    60  Cbc0038I Pass  38: (10.83 seconds) suminf.   35.92908 (105) obj. 744.104 iterations 91
    61  Cbc0038I Pass  39: (10.86 seconds) suminf.   35.52908 (105) obj. 744.104 iterations 58
    62  Cbc0038I Pass  40: (10.89 seconds) suminf.   35.26241 (103) obj. 744.104 iterations 48
    63  Cbc0038I Pass  41: (10.91 seconds) suminf.   35.26241 (103) obj. 744.104 iterations 0
    64  Cbc0038I Pass  42: (10.94 seconds) suminf.   34.59574 (102) obj. 744.104 iterations 65
    65  Cbc0038I Pass  43: (11.00 seconds) suminf.   33.39574 (99) obj. 744.104 iterations 253
    66  Cbc0038I Rounding solution of 764 is better than previous of 765
    67
    68  Cbc0038I Before mini branch and bound, 7332 integers at bound fixed and 30532 continuous
    69  Cbc0038I Full problem 37313 rows 42882 columns, reduced to 1758 rows 1877 columns
    70  Cbc0038I Mini branch and bound did not improve solution (15.54 seconds)
    71  Cbc0038I After 15.54 seconds - Feasibility pump exiting with objective of 742 - took 6.36 seconds
    72  Cbc0012I Integer solution of 742 found by feasibility pump after 0 iterations and 0 nodes
    73  (15.55 seconds)
    74  Cbc0027I Exiting on user event
    75  Cbc0005I Partial search - best objective 653 (best possible 629.9), took 3188627 iterations
    76  and 1068 nodes (3615.33 seconds)
    77  Cbc0032I Strong branching done 16196 times (715305 iterations), fathomed 0 nodes and fixed 0
    78  variables
    79  Cbc0035I Maximum depth 52, 0 variables fixed on reduced cost
    80  Cuts at root node changed objective from 565.042 to 629.9
    81  Probing was tried 1274 times and created 211829 cuts of which 4667 were active after adding
    82  rounds of cuts (4.965 seconds)
    83  Gomory was tried 1274 times and created 9045 cuts of which 0 were active after adding rounds
    84  of cuts (32.725 seconds)
    85  Knapsack was tried 1274 times and created 233 cuts of which 0 were active after adding rounds
    86  of cuts (22.010 seconds)
    87  Clique was tried 10 times and created 0 cuts of which 0 were active after adding rounds of cuts
    88  (0.012 seconds)
    89  MixedIntegerRounding2 was tried 1274 times and created 20769 cuts of which 0 were active after
    90  adding rounds of cuts (12.944 seconds)
    91  FlowCover was tried 10 times and created 150 cuts of which 0 were active after adding rounds
    92  of cuts (0.263 seconds)
    93  TwoMirCuts was tried 1274 times and created 50422 cuts of which 0 were active after adding
    94  rounds of cuts (11.078 seconds)
    95  ZeroHalf was tried 1274 times and created 921 cuts of which 0 were active after adding rounds
    96  of cuts (10.462 seconds)
    97  ImplicationCuts was tried 20 times and created 634 cuts of which 0 were active after adding
    98  rounds of cuts (0.006 seconds)
    99
    100  Result - User ctrl-cuser ctrl-c
    101
    102 Objective value:                653.00000000
    103 Lower bound:                    629.900
    104 Gap:                            0.04
    105 Enumerated nodes:               1068
    106 Total iterations:               3188627
    107 Time (CPU seconds):             3620.45
    108 Time (Wallclock seconds):       3620.51
    109
    110 Total time (CPU seconds):       3620.46   (Wallclock seconds):       3620.52

### `Symphony`

Contrary to the previous logs shown, `symphony` offers a minimalistic yet essential amount of information. As in `CBC`, we have set the stop criteria to 3600 seconds, for the same reasons. As noted, sections (i) and (ii) are omitted, while section (iv) only indicates the objective value of the solution achieved (lines 38 to 44). In turn, the section (iii) is similar to the log from `gurobi` and `CPLEX` (lines 8 to 36). Note that the most recent solution uncovered has a target value of 646. While it is currently evaluating whether this constitutes the optimal solution (reflecting a gap of 2.49%), it is pertinent to highlight that we are confident in asserting its optimality based on the solutions identified by `gurobi` and `CPLEX`.

    1  Starting Preprocessing...
    2  Preprocessing finished...
    3     coefficients modified: 268
    4       constraints removed: 48
    5       variables fixed: 290
    6       variables aggregated: 17
    7
    8  Solving...
    9
    10     Time       Done     Queued                  LB                  UB     Gap
    11       48          1          1              629.90              652.00    3.39
    12       54          8          8              629.90              652.00    3.39
    13       60         17         17              629.90              652.00    3.39
    14       66         26         26              629.90              652.00    3.39
    15       72         36         36              629.90              651.00    3.24
    16       78         47         47              629.90              649.00    2.94
    17       84         61         61              629.90              648.00    2.79
    18       90         76         76              629.90              648.00    2.79
    19       96         90         90              629.90              648.00    2.79
    20      102        106        106              629.90              648.00    2.79
    21    ...
    22     3511       4343       4343              629.90              646.00    2.49
    23     3517       4348       4348              629.90              646.00    2.49
    24     3523       4352       4352              629.90              646.00    2.49
    25     3529       4357       4357              629.90              646.00    2.49
    26     3535       4362       4362              629.90              646.00    2.49
    27     3541       4366       4366              629.90              646.00    2.49
    28     3547       4369       4369              629.90              646.00    2.49
    29     3553       4373       4373              629.90              646.00    2.49
    30     3559       4378       4378              629.90              646.00    2.49
    31     3566       4382       4382              629.90              646.00    2.49
    32     3572       4386       4386              629.90              646.00    2.49
    33     3578       4389       4389              629.90              646.00    2.49
    34     3585       4394       4394              629.90              646.00    2.49
    35     3592       4398       4398              629.90              646.00    2.49
    36     3598       4402       4402              629.90              646.00    2.49
    37
    38  ****************************************************
    39  * Time Limit Reached                               *
    40  ****************************************************
    41
    42
    43  Solution Found: Node 217, Level 109
    44  Solution Cost: 646.000000000

## Results

We have conducted 48 tests, encompassing three distinct models (models (A), (B), and (C)) and spanning four recovery targets (10%, 20%, 30%, and 40%). These tests were carried out across all four available solvers within the `prioriactions` framework, comprising two academic solvers (`gurobi` and `CPLEX`) and two non-academic alternatives (`CBC` and `symphony`).

### Academic solvers: `gurobi` vs `CPLEX`

Upon comparing the two academic solvers, a similarity in behaviour becomes evident. In the context of `gurobi`, optimal solutions were successfully achieved across all scenarios, as evidenced by gaps amounting to zero. Similarly, when employing `CPLEX`, we observed zero gaps across all scenarios, with the exceptions occurring in model (C) targeting 10%, where a gap of 0.73% emerged, and in model (C) targeting 30%, which exhibited a gap of 0.24% (see upper right box in previous Figure). Nonetheless, a consistent disparity becomes apparent in terms of processing times. `gurobi` consistently exhibited a lead in verifying optimal solutions across most scenarios, with only slight variations in model (A) (distanced by seconds). Assuming that `CPLEX` achieved optimal solutions in all instances, verification required an average of 3510.847 seconds. In contrast, `gurobi` outperformed with an average of 1365.47 seconds, representing approximately 39% of the time taken by `CPLEX` (see bottom boxes in the previous Figure).

### Non-academic solvers: `CBC` vs `symphony`

In this context, it is a more varied panorama, with `CBC` notably standing out. In 8 out of the 12 comparative analyses against `symphony`, `CBC` demonstrated superior solution qualities, as indicated by the upper boxes in Figure above. Furthermore, the average gaps achieved by `CBC` stand at 6.35%, while its counterpart averages 9.06%. Turning to run times, `CBC` exhibited the capability to verify optimal solutions ahead of `symphony` in model (A), particularly with target restrictions of 30% and 40%. However, it is noteworthy that both solvers encountered challenges in validating the optimality of the obtained solutions in the remaining models (see bottom boxes in Figure above).

## Conclusions

The benchmark findings underscore the considerable variability in the time required to resolve multi-action management planning challenges. This temporal difference is contingent upon diverse factors, encompassing the problem’s scale, intricacy, and the solver engaged in formulating the prioritization. Notably, specific solvers, such as the `symphony` solver, may demand several hours to address a predicament that could be resolved within minutes by other solvers like `CPLEX` or `gurobi.` In terms of recommendations, we advise prioritizing the utilization of `gurobi` and `CPLEX` solvers whenever feasible, as they frequently exhibit superior performance with respect to the non-academic solvers. While academics can avail special licenses for these solvers at no cost, it is crucial to recognize that conservation planners within governmental or non-governmental entities might not have access to these resources. In scenarios where access to the aforementioned solvers is limited, we propose the adoption of the `CBC` solver, which generally demonstrates better efficacy compared to `symphony.` In any case, due to the complexity of exploring in detail all the possible instances (number of units, species, threats and their respective combinations), we recommend being cautious with these results. Considering the intrinsic combinatorial nature of these models, even solvers as robust as `gurobi` may encounter difficulties when tackling exhaustive analyses.