Author: Maciej Nasinski
Date: 2026-02-26

# Missing Data Mechanisms and Multiple Imputation with miceFast

#### Maciej Nasinski

#### 2026-02-26

# Introduction

Handling missing data is one of the most common challenges in applied statistics. The validity of any imputation strategy depends critically on why the data are missing. This vignette introduces the three missing-data mechanisms (MCAR, MAR, and MNAR) and then demonstrates how to use miceFast for proper Multiple Imputation (MI) with Rubin’s rules.

For the full API reference (all imputation models, `fill_NA()`, `fill_NA_N()`, and the OOP interface), see the companion vignette: miceFast Introduction and Advanced Usage.

    library(miceFast)
    library(dplyr)
    library(ggplot2)
    set.seed(2025)

## Quick-start: MI in 10 lines

If you just want the recipe, here it is. The rest of this vignette explains why each step matters.

    data(air_miss)

    # 1. Impute m = 10 completed datasets
    completed <- lapply(1:10, function(i) {
      air_miss %>%
        mutate(Ozone_imp = fill_NA(x = ., model = "lm_bayes",
          posit_y = "Ozone", posit_x = c("Solar.R", "Wind", "Temp")))
    })
    # 2. Fit the analysis model on each
    fits <- lapply(completed, function(d) lm(Ozone_imp ~ Wind + Temp, data = d))
    # 3. Pool using Rubin's rules
    summary(pool(fits))

    ## Pooled results from 10 imputed datasets
    ## Rubin's rules with Barnard-Rubin df adjustment
    ## Complete-data df: 148
    ##
    ## Coefficients:
    ##         term estimate std.error statistic     df   p.value conf.low conf.high
    ##  (Intercept)  -62.067   22.0364    -2.817 119.25 5.683e-03 -105.700   -18.433
    ##         Wind   -3.118    0.6334    -4.922  98.43 3.448e-06   -4.374    -1.861
    ##         Temp    1.738    0.2364     7.354 117.25 2.829e-11    1.270     2.207
    ##
    ## Pooling diagnostics:
    ##         term      ubar         b         t     riv  lambda    fmi
    ##  (Intercept) 442.57484 39.117567 485.60416 0.09722 0.08861 0.1035
    ##         Wind   0.34485  0.051237   0.40121 0.16344 0.14048 0.1574
    ##         Temp   0.05065  0.004756   0.05588 0.10329 0.09362 0.1087

# Missing-Data Mechanisms

Little and Rubin (2002) defined three mechanisms that describe the relationship between the data and the probability of missingness:

## MCAR: Missing Completely at Random

A variable is MCAR when the probability of being missing is the same for all observations, regardless of both observed and unobserved values.

\[P(R = 0 \mid Y_{obs}, Y_{mis}) = P(R = 0)\]

where \(R\) is the missingness indicator, \(Y_{obs}\) are the observed values, and \(Y_{mis}\) are the missing values.

Example: A sensor fails at random intervals due to a hardware glitch unrelated to the measurements.

Testing for MCAR: MCAR is the only mechanism that can be tested from the observed data. Little’s (1988) test compares the means of observed values across different missingness patterns; a significant result rejects MCAR. However, failure to reject does not prove MCAR. The test has limited power, especially with small samples or few patterns. It is a necessary check, not a sufficient one.

Implications:

- Complete-case analysis (listwise deletion) produces unbiased estimates but is less efficient.
- Simple imputation methods (mean, median) are unbiased for the mean but distort the variance and covariance structure.
- MI is valid and efficient.

## MAR: Missing at Random

A variable is MAR when the probability of being missing depends on observed data but not on the missing values themselves, conditional on the observed data.

\[P(R = 0 \mid Y_{obs}, Y_{mis}) = P(R = 0 \mid Y_{obs})\]

Example: Patients with higher blood pressure (recorded) are less likely to return for a follow-up cholesterol measurement. Cholesterol is missing depending on blood pressure, not on the cholesterol value itself.

Implications:

- Complete-case analysis is generally biased.
- Model-based imputation conditioning on observed predictors yields valid inferences.
- MI with an appropriate imputation model is the standard approach.
- miceFast models (`lm_bayes`, `lm_noise`, `pmm`, `lda`) condition on observed predictors, making them appropriate for MAR.

MAR cannot be tested.

Unlike MCAR, there is no test that can distinguish MAR from MNAR using the observed data alone, because the distinction depends on the unobserved values. The practical response is to make MAR more plausible by including auxiliary variables. These are variables that predict missingness or the missing values even if they are not part of the analysis model. The more information in the imputation model, the weaker the assumption required.

Note also that the boundary between MAR and MNAR shifts depending on which variables are conditioned on. A variable that appears MNAR with a sparse predictor set may be MAR once the right covariates are included (see Collins et al., 2001).

## MNAR: Missing Not at Random

A variable is MNAR when the probability of being missing depends on the unobserved (missing) value itself, even after conditioning on observed data.

\[P(R = 0 \mid Y_{obs}, Y_{mis}) \neq P(R = 0 \mid Y_{obs})\]

Example: People with very high income are less likely to report their income in a survey. The missingness depends on the value that would have been reported.

Implications:

- No imputation method can fully correct the bias without additional assumptions or external information.
- Sensitivity analysis is crucial: impute under MAR assumptions, then examine how results change under plausible MNAR deviations.
- Selection models may be needed.

## Practical guidance

Mechanism | Testable? | Imputation valid? | Strategy
--- | --- | --- | ---
MCAR | Yes (Little’s test) | Yes | Any method works; MI is most efficient
MAR | No | Yes (if model is correct) | Condition on observed predictors; use MI
MNAR | No | Partially | Use MI as a starting point + sensitivity analysis

In practice, you cannot distinguish MAR from MNAR using the observed data alone. Including many predictors of missingness in the imputation model makes the MAR assumption more plausible and reduces the sensitivity to violation. Always perform sensitivity analyses.

# Multiple Imputation: Theory

Multiple Imputation (MI), introduced by Rubin (1987), addresses the fundamental problem of single imputation: it fails to account for the uncertainty introduced by not knowing the true missing values. For a comprehensive modern treatment of MI, see van Buuren (2018).

## The MI procedure

1. Impute. Create \(m\) completed datasets by drawing from the predictive distribution of the missing values (each draw uses a different random seed or stochastic model).
2. Analyze. Fit the analysis model of interest (e.g., `lm`, `glm`) separately on each of the \(m\) completed datasets.
3. Pool. Combine the \(m\) sets of estimates and standard errors using Rubin’s rules.

## Rubin’s rules

Once the \(m\) completed datasets have been analyzed, the \(m\) sets of parameter estimates must be combined into a single set of inferences. Rubin (1987) provided a simple set of formulas for this pooling step, now universally known as Rubin’s rules. The key insight is that the total uncertainty about a parameter has two components: the usual sampling variance (which would exist even without missing data) and an extra component that reflects not knowing the true missing values. The formulas below are implemented in `miceFast::pool()` (see `?pool` for details).

Let \(\hat{Q}_j\) and \(\hat{U}_j\) denote the point estimate and variance estimate from the \(j\)-th completed dataset (\(j = 1, \ldots, m\)).

Pooled estimate (Rubin, 1987, eq. 3.1.2): \[\bar{Q} = \frac{1}{m} \sum_{j=1}^{m} \hat{Q}_j\]

The pooled point estimate is simply the average across imputations.

Within-imputation variance (Rubin, 1987, eq. 3.1.3): \[\bar{U} = \frac{1}{m} \sum_{j=1}^{m} \hat{U}_j\]

This is the average of the \(m\) variance estimates. It captures the sampling variability that would be present even if there were no missing data.

Between-imputation variance (Rubin, 1987, eq. 3.1.4): \[B = \frac{1}{m-1} \sum_{j=1}^{m} (\hat{Q}_j - \bar{Q})^2\]

This is the variance of the point estimates across imputations. It captures the extra uncertainty caused by not observing the missing values: if the imputations agree closely, \(B\) is small and missingness has little impact.

Total variance (Rubin, 1987, eq. 3.1.5): \[T = \bar{U} + \left(1 + \frac{1}{m}\right) B\]

The factor \((1 + 1/m)\) corrects for using a finite number of imputations rather than infinitely many. Inference (confidence intervals, \(t\)-tests) uses \(\bar{Q} \pm t_{\nu}\sqrt{T}\).

### Degrees of freedom

With complete data, a \(t\)-test would use the residual degrees of freedom. With MI, the reference distribution is a \(t\) with degrees of freedom \(\nu\) that accounts for both the finite \(m\) and the fraction of information lost to missingness. Rubin’s (1987) large-sample approximation is:

\[\nu = (m - 1)\left(1 + \frac{1}{r}\right)^{2}\]

where \(r = (1 + 1/m)B / \bar{U}\) is the relative increase in variance (RIV) due to missingness (Rubin, 1987, eq. 3.1.7). When \(r\) is small (little missing information), \(\nu\) is large and inference resembles the complete-data case.

For small samples, Barnard and Rubin (1999) proposed an adjustment that also incorporates the complete-data degrees of freedom \(\nu_{com}\):

\[\nu_{adj} = \left(\frac{1}{\nu} + \frac{1}{\hat{\nu}_{obs}}\right)^{-1}\]

where \(\hat{\nu}_{obs} = \nu_{com}(\nu_{com} + 1)(1 - \gamma) / (\nu_{com} + 3)\) and \(\gamma = (1 + 1/m)B / T\) is the proportion of total variance due to missingness (denoted \(\lambda\) in the output of `pool()`). This adjusted \(\nu_{adj}\) is always \(\leq \min(\nu, \nu_{com})\), producing more conservative inference when the sample is small. `pool()` applies this adjustment automatically when `df.residual()` is available from the fitted models.

### Diagnostic quantities

- \(\lambda\) (lambda): Proportion of total variance due to missingness: \(\lambda = (1 + 1/m)B / T\).
- FMI: Fraction of missing information, approximating the loss of information due to missing data.
- RIV: Relative increase in variance: \(r = (1 + 1/m)B / \bar{U}\).

### Why MI works

Each imputed dataset is a draw from the posterior predictive distribution \(P(Y_{mis} \mid Y_{obs})\). The between-imputation variance \(B\) captures the additional uncertainty from not knowing the missing values. Rubin (1987) showed that this procedure yields valid frequentist inference (confidence intervals with correct coverage) provided two conditions hold: the imputations are proper and the imputation model is congenial with the analysis model. The efficiency of MI depends on the fraction of missing information (FMI), not on the fraction of missing data. A dataset with 40% missing values may have low FMI if the observed predictors are highly informative.

### Proper imputation

An imputation procedure is proper (Rubin, 1987) if it propagates all sources of uncertainty: both the uncertainty about the model parameters and the residual variability. In practice this means each imputation must

1. draw model parameters from their posterior distribution, and then
2. draw imputed values from the predictive distribution given those parameters.

`lm_bayes` in miceFast is a proper imputation method: it draws \(\beta\) and \(\sigma^2\) from the posterior under a non-informative prior, then generates imputed values from the resulting predictive distribution. `pmm` (predictive mean matching) is also proper: it draws \(\beta\) from the same Bayesian posterior, computes predicted values for all rows, and then matches each missing-row prediction to the nearest observed-row predictions, returning the corresponding observed \(y\) values. Because imputed values are always real observed values, PMM automatically preserves the data distribution and respects natural bounds (e.g., non-negativity) without extra constraints. `lm_noise`, which adds residual noise to point-estimate predictions, is improper. It omits the parameter uncertainty and tends to produce confidence intervals that are slightly too narrow, though the bias is small when \(n\) is large relative to \(p\) (Schafer, 1997, Section 3.4). `lda` with a random `ridge` is approximate: different ridge values across imputations introduce variation, but this is not a formal posterior draw.

### Congeniality

The imputation model is congenial with the analysis model (Meng, 1994) when the imputation model is at least as general as (or richer than) the analysis model. If the analysis model includes an interaction term but the imputation model does not, the resulting MI inferences can be biased. Practically: include in the imputation model all variables that will appear in the analysis model, plus any auxiliary variables that predict missingness. Err on the side of a richer imputation model.

# Multiple Imputation with miceFast

## Why miceFast for MI?

The mice package provides a complete MI framework but its imputation step can be slow, especially with large datasets, many groups, or many imputations. miceFast provides fast C++/Armadillo implementations of the same underlying models, which can be plugged into the standard MI workflow:

Step | mice | miceFast
--- | --- | ---
1. Impute | `mice()` | `fill_NA()` in a loop
2. Analyze | `with()` | `lapply()` + model fitting
3. Pool | `mice::pool()` | `miceFast::pool()`

The `pool()` function in miceFast implements Rubin’s rules with the Barnard-Rubin degrees-of-freedom adjustment. It has been tested against `mice::pool()` for linear, logistic, and Poisson regression.

## Stochastic models for MI

For MI to work correctly, each imputation must introduce appropriate random variation. Deterministic models (like `lm_pred`) should not be used for MI because they produce identical imputations across datasets.

Variable type | Recommended model | How it’s stochastic | Proper?
--- | --- | --- | ---
Continuous | `lm_bayes` | Draws regression coefficients from their posterior distribution | Yes
Continuous / Categorical | `pmm` | Draws coefficients from the posterior, matches predictions to nearest observed values (Type II PMM) | Yes
Categorical | `lda` + random `ridge` | Different ridge penalties across imputations create variation | Approximate

PMM for MI: `pmm` is proper and works for both continuous and categorical variables. It preserves the observed data distribution. Imputed values are always values that were actually observed. Since `fill_NA()` does not support `pmm`, use the OOP interface (`impute("pmm", ...)`) in a loop for MI (see example below and the Introduction vignette).

## Basic MI workflow

The three-step MI workflow uses `fill_NA()` in a loop, any model with `coef()`/`vcov()`, and `pool()`. For more imputation examples (grouping, weights, data.table, OOP), see the Introduction vignette.

    data(air_miss)

    # Step 1: Create m = 10 completed datasets
    m <- 10
    completed <- lapply(1:m, function(i) {
      air_miss %>%
        mutate(
          Ozone_imp = fill_NA(
            x = ., model = "lm_bayes",
            posit_y = "Ozone",
            posit_x = c("Solar.R", "Wind", "Temp")
          )
        )
    })

    # Step 2: Fit the analysis model on each
    fits <- lapply(completed, function(d) {
      lm(Ozone_imp ~ Wind + Temp, data = d)
    })

    # Step 3: Pool using Rubin's rules
    pool_result <- pool(fits)
    pool_result

    ## Pooled results from 10 imputed datasets
    ## Rubin's rules with Barnard-Rubin df adjustment
    ##
    ##         term estimate std.error statistic    df   p.value
    ##  (Intercept)  -58.153   24.8186    -2.343 55.99 2.270e-02
    ##         Wind   -3.510    0.6549    -5.359 80.60 7.764e-07
    ##         Temp    1.728    0.2662     6.494 55.16 2.511e-08

    # Detailed summary with confidence intervals
    summary(pool_result)

    ## Pooled results from 10 imputed datasets
    ## Rubin's rules with Barnard-Rubin df adjustment
    ## Complete-data df: 148
    ##
    ## Coefficients:
    ##         term estimate std.error statistic    df   p.value conf.low conf.high
    ##  (Intercept)  -58.153   24.8186    -2.343 55.99 2.270e-02 -107.871    -8.436
    ##         Wind   -3.510    0.6549    -5.359 80.60 7.764e-07   -4.813    -2.206
    ##         Temp    1.728    0.2662     6.494 55.16 2.511e-08    1.195     2.262
    ##
    ## Pooling diagnostics:
    ##         term      ubar         b         t    riv lambda    fmi
    ##  (Intercept) 446.47720 154.07744 615.96239 0.3796 0.2752 0.2997
    ##         Wind   0.34789   0.07365   0.42890 0.2329 0.1889 0.2083
    ##         Temp   0.05109   0.01795   0.07084 0.3865 0.2788 0.3036

The output includes:

- estimate: Pooled coefficient (\(\bar{Q}\)).
- std.error: Square root of total variance (\(\sqrt{T}\)).
- statistic: Wald test statistic.
- df: Barnard-Rubin adjusted degrees of freedom.
- p.value: Two-sided p-value.
- lambda / fmi: Fraction of total variance / missing information due to missingness.
- conf.low / conf.high: 95% confidence intervals.

## MI with mixed variable types

Real datasets often have both continuous and categorical variables with missing values. Use `lm_bayes` (or `pmm`) for continuous variables and `lda` with a random `ridge` (or `pmm`) for categorical variables:

    data(air_miss)

    impute_dataset <- function(data) {
      data %>%
        mutate(
          # Continuous: Bayesian linear regression
          Ozone_imp = fill_NA(
            x = ., model = "lm_bayes",
            posit_y = "Ozone",
            posit_x = c("Solar.R", "Wind", "Temp")
          ),
          Solar_R_imp = fill_NA(
            x = ., model = "lm_bayes",
            posit_y = "Solar.R",
            posit_x = c("Wind", "Temp", "Intercept")
          ),
          # Categorical: LDA with random ridge for stochasticity
          Ozone_chac_imp = fill_NA(
            x = ., model = "lda",
            posit_y = "Ozone_chac",
            posit_x = c("Wind", "Temp"),
            ridge = runif(1, 0.5, 50)
          )
        )
    }

    set.seed(777)
    completed <- replicate(10, impute_dataset(air_miss), simplify = FALSE)

    # Fit and pool a model for continuous outcome
    fits_ozone <- lapply(completed, function(d) {
      lm(Ozone_imp ~ Wind + Temp + Solar_R_imp, data = d)
    })
    pool(fits_ozone)

    ## Pooled results from 10 imputed datasets
    ## Rubin's rules with Barnard-Rubin df adjustment
    ##
    ##         term  estimate std.error statistic    df   p.value
    ##  (Intercept) -50.60537  21.48980    -2.355 108.8 2.032e-02
    ##         Wind  -3.46318   0.58692    -5.901 124.3 3.211e-08
    ##         Temp   1.49824   0.24352     6.153  94.7 1.816e-08
    ##  Solar_R_imp   0.05272   0.02193     2.404  92.6 1.822e-02

## MI with GLMs

`pool()` works with any model that supports `coef()` and `vcov()`. Here’s an example with logistic regression:

    data(air_miss)

    # Create a binary outcome for demonstration
    completed <- lapply(1:10, function(i) {
      d <- air_miss %>%
        mutate(
          Ozone_imp = fill_NA(
            x = ., model = "lm_bayes",
            posit_y = "Ozone",
            posit_x = c("Solar.R", "Wind", "Temp")
          )
        )
      d$high_ozone <- as.integer(d$Ozone_imp > median(d$Ozone_imp, na.rm = TRUE))
      d
    })

    fits_logit <- lapply(completed, function(d) {
      glm(high_ozone ~ Wind + Temp, data = d, family = binomial)
    })

    pool(fits_logit)

    ## Pooled results from 10 imputed datasets
    ## Rubin's rules with Barnard-Rubin df adjustment
    ##
    ##         term estimate std.error statistic    df  p.value
    ##  (Intercept) -16.7246   4.82959    -3.463 31.13 0.001577
    ##         Wind  -0.2305   0.08935    -2.580 71.44 0.011951
    ##         Temp   0.2409   0.06092     3.955 29.03 0.000451

## MI with grouped imputation

When the relationship between variables differs across groups, fit separate imputation models per group:

    data(air_miss)

    completed_grouped <- lapply(1:5, function(i) {
      air_miss %>%
        group_by(groups) %>%
        do(mutate(.,
          Ozone_imp = fill_NA(
            x = ., model = "lm_bayes",
            posit_y = "Ozone",
            posit_x = c("Wind", "Temp", "Intercept")
          )
        )) %>%
        ungroup()
    })

    fits <- lapply(completed_grouped, function(d) {
      lm(Ozone_imp ~ Wind + Temp + factor(groups), data = d)
    })
    pool(fits)

    ## Pooled results from 5 imputed datasets
    ## Rubin's rules with Barnard-Rubin df adjustment
    ##
    ##             term estimate std.error statistic     df   p.value
    ##      (Intercept)  -97.809   23.4980   -4.1624 136.16 5.552e-05
    ##             Wind   -1.885    0.6485   -2.9067  51.35 5.380e-03
    ##             Temp    2.164    0.3076    7.0371 112.90 1.615e-10
    ##  factor(groups)6  -26.628    7.7409   -3.4399  46.61 1.237e-03
    ##  factor(groups)7  -10.223    8.2259   -1.2428  70.35 2.181e-01
    ##  factor(groups)8   -7.128    8.7645   -0.8133  39.26 4.209e-01
    ##  factor(groups)9  -18.415    7.1444   -2.5776  61.84 1.235e-02

## MI with weighted imputation

If your data have sampling weights or you want to account for heteroscedasticity:

    data(air_miss)

    completed_w <- lapply(1:5, function(i) {
      air_miss %>%
        mutate(
          Solar_R_imp = fill_NA(
            x = ., model = "lm_bayes",
            posit_y = "Solar.R",
            posit_x = c("Wind", "Temp", "Intercept"),
            w = weights
          )
        )
    })

    fits_w <- lapply(completed_w, function(d) {
      lm(Solar_R_imp ~ Wind + Temp, data = d)
    })
    pool(fits_w)

    ## Pooled results from 5 imputed datasets
    ## Rubin's rules with Barnard-Rubin df adjustment
    ##
    ##         term estimate std.error statistic    df   p.value
    ##  (Intercept)  -92.581   79.2008    -1.169 141.1 0.2443977
    ##         Wind    2.537    2.3296     1.089 116.8 0.2783382
    ##         Temp    3.226    0.8395     3.843 146.1 0.0001809

## MI with PMM (OOP interface)

PMM is a proper method that works for both continuous and categorical variables. It draws coefficients from the posterior, predicts on all rows, and matches each missing-row prediction to the nearest observed values. Imputed values are always values that were actually observed. Since `fill_NA()` does not support `pmm`, use the OOP interface for the MI loop:

    data(air_miss)

    dat <- as.matrix(air_miss[, c("Ozone", "Solar.R", "Wind", "Temp")])
    dat <- cbind(dat, Intercept = 1)

    m <- 10
    completed <- lapply(1:m, function(i) {
      model <- new(miceFast)
      model$set_data(dat + 0)            # copy. set_data uses the matrix by reference.
      # impute("pmm", ...) draws from the Bayesian posterior and matches to nearest observed value
      model$update_var(1, model$impute("pmm", 1, c(3, 4, 5))$imputations)
      d <- as.data.frame(model$get_data())
      colnames(d) <- c("Ozone", "Solar.R", "Wind", "Temp", "Intercept")
      d
    })

    fits_pmm <- lapply(completed, function(d) {
      lm(Ozone ~ Wind + Temp, data = d)
    })
    pool(fits_pmm)

    ## Pooled results from 10 imputed datasets
    ## Rubin's rules with Barnard-Rubin df adjustment
    ##
    ##         term estimate std.error statistic    df   p.value
    ##  (Intercept)  -65.328   28.3811    -2.302 34.97 2.742e-02
    ##         Wind   -2.920    0.8038    -3.633 37.19 8.404e-04
    ##         Temp    1.765    0.2935     6.014 40.84 4.191e-07

# Sensitivity Analysis

## Why sensitivity analysis?

Since we can never be certain whether data are MAR or MNAR, it is important to check whether substantive conclusions are robust to different imputation approaches.

## Comparing models with `fill_NA_N()`

`fill_NA_N()` produces a single filled-in dataset: for `lm_bayes`/`lm_noise` it averages k draws; for `pmm` it samples from the k nearest observed values. This makes it useful for quick sensitivity checks. Compare different imputation strategies:

    data(air_miss)

    air_sensitivity <- air_miss %>%
      mutate(
        Ozone_bayes = fill_NA(x = ., model = "lm_bayes",
          posit_y = "Ozone", posit_x = c("Solar.R", "Wind", "Temp")),
        Ozone_noise = fill_NA(x = ., model = "lm_noise",
          posit_y = "Ozone", posit_x = c("Solar.R", "Wind", "Temp")),
        Ozone_pmm = fill_NA_N(x = ., model = "pmm",
          posit_y = "Ozone", posit_x = c("Solar.R", "Wind", "Temp"), k = 20),
        Ozone_pred = fill_NA(x = ., model = "lm_pred",
          posit_y = "Ozone", posit_x = c("Solar.R", "Wind", "Temp"))
      )

    compare_imp(air_sensitivity, origin = "Ozone",
      target = c("Ozone_bayes", "Ozone_noise", "Ozone_pmm", "Ozone_pred"))

## Varying the number of imputations

Check whether results stabilize as m increases:

    set.seed(2025)
    results <- data.frame()

    for (m_val in c(3, 5, 10, 20, 50)) {
      completed <- lapply(1:m_val, function(i) {
        air_miss %>%
          mutate(Ozone_imp = fill_NA(
            x = ., model = "lm_bayes",
            posit_y = "Ozone", posit_x = c("Solar.R", "Wind", "Temp")
          ))
      })
      fits <- lapply(completed, function(d) lm(Ozone_imp ~ Wind + Temp, data = d))
      s <- summary(pool(fits))
      s$m <- m_val
      results <- rbind(results, s)
    }

    ## Pooled results from 3 imputed datasets
    ## Rubin's rules with Barnard-Rubin df adjustment
    ## Complete-data df: 148
    ##
    ## Coefficients:
    ##         term estimate std.error statistic    df   p.value conf.low conf.high
    ##  (Intercept)  -63.965   22.6779    -2.821 38.59 7.531e-03 -109.851   -18.079
    ##         Wind   -2.998    0.6121    -4.898 61.02 7.451e-06   -4.222    -1.774
    ##         Temp    1.750    0.2387     7.329 47.51 2.441e-09    1.270     2.230
    ##
    ## Pooling diagnostics:
    ##         term      ubar         b        t    riv lambda    fmi
    ##  (Intercept) 418.10247 72.138255 514.2868 0.2300 0.1870 0.2261
    ##         Wind   0.32578  0.036664   0.3747 0.1501 0.1305 0.1576
    ##         Temp   0.04785  0.006863   0.0570 0.1913 0.1606 0.1938
    ## Pooled results from 5 imputed datasets
    ## Rubin's rules with Barnard-Rubin df adjustment
    ## Complete-data df: 148
    ##
    ## Coefficients:
    ##         term estimate std.error statistic     df   p.value conf.low conf.high
    ##  (Intercept)  -59.850   22.2855    -2.686 102.45 8.447e-03 -104.051   -15.649
    ##         Wind   -3.212    0.6625    -4.848  53.54 1.111e-05   -4.540    -1.883
    ##         Temp    1.719    0.2422     7.097  86.93 3.260e-10    1.237     2.200
    ##
    ## Pooling diagnostics:
    ##         term     ubar        b         t    riv  lambda    fmi
    ##  (Intercept) 450.0165 38.85688 496.64477 0.1036 0.09389 0.1111
    ##         Wind   0.3506  0.07354   0.43890 0.2517 0.20108 0.2293
    ##         Temp   0.0515  0.00595   0.05864 0.1387 0.12177 0.1413
    ## Pooled results from 10 imputed datasets
    ## Rubin's rules with Barnard-Rubin df adjustment
    ## Complete-data df: 148
    ##
    ## Coefficients:
    ##         term estimate std.error statistic    df   p.value conf.low conf.high
    ##  (Intercept)  -62.071   23.6013    -2.630 79.65 1.025e-02 -109.042   -15.099
    ##         Wind   -3.376    0.6666    -5.064 73.54 2.942e-06   -4.704    -2.047
    ##         Temp    1.764    0.2514     7.019 82.07 5.876e-10    1.264     2.264
    ##
    ## Pooling diagnostics:
    ##         term      ubar        b         t    riv lambda    fmi
    ##  (Intercept) 450.23536 97.07922 557.02250 0.2372 0.1917 0.2113
    ##         Wind   0.35082  0.08504   0.44436 0.2666 0.2105 0.2311
    ##         Temp   0.05152  0.01060   0.06319 0.2264 0.1846 0.2038
    ## Pooled results from 20 imputed datasets
    ## Rubin's rules with Barnard-Rubin df adjustment
    ## Complete-data df: 148
    ##
    ## Coefficients:
    ##         term estimate std.error statistic    df   p.value conf.low conf.high
    ##  (Intercept)  -53.857   23.4118    -2.300 92.45 2.367e-02 -100.352    -7.362
    ##         Wind   -3.325    0.6530    -5.092 92.82 1.852e-06   -4.621    -2.028
    ##         Temp    1.654    0.2505     6.601 92.29 2.547e-09    1.156     2.151
    ##
    ## Pooling diagnostics:
    ##         term      ubar         b         t    riv lambda    fmi
    ##  (Intercept) 435.88724 106.88184 548.11317 0.2575 0.2047 0.2214
    ##         Wind   0.33964   0.08260   0.42637 0.2554 0.2034 0.2200
    ##         Temp   0.04988   0.01227   0.06277 0.2584 0.2053 0.2220
    ## Pooled results from 50 imputed datasets
    ## Rubin's rules with Barnard-Rubin df adjustment
    ## Complete-data df: 148
    ##
    ## Coefficients:
    ##         term estimate std.error statistic    df   p.value conf.low conf.high
    ##  (Intercept)  -55.191   24.4279    -2.259 90.38 2.627e-02 -103.719    -6.664
    ##         Wind   -3.446    0.6872    -5.015 88.16 2.724e-06   -4.812    -2.081
    ##         Temp    1.686    0.2568     6.563 95.54 2.723e-09    1.176     2.195
    ##
    ## Pooling diagnostics:
    ##         term      ubar         b         t    riv lambda    fmi
    ##  (Intercept) 430.77041 162.69812 596.72249 0.3852 0.2781 0.2936
    ##         Wind   0.33565   0.13397   0.47230 0.4071 0.2893 0.3049
    ##         Temp   0.04929   0.01635   0.06597 0.3382 0.2528 0.2679

    results %>%
      filter(term == "Wind") %>%
      ggplot(aes(x = m, y = estimate)) +
      geom_point(size = 3) +
      geom_errorbar(aes(ymin = conf.low, ymax = conf.high), width = 2) +
      labs(title = "Stability of Wind coefficient across m",
           x = "Number of imputations (m)",
           y = "Pooled estimate") +
      theme_minimal()

## Comparing with base methods

Always compare MI results against simple baselines. If conclusions differ, investigate why. It may reveal problems with your imputation model or indicate that the missing-data mechanism matters.

    data(air_miss)
    set.seed(2025)

    # 1. Complete cases (listwise deletion). Unbiased under MCAR.
    fit_cc <- lm(Ozone ~ Wind + Temp, data = air_miss[complete.cases(air_miss[, c("Ozone", "Wind", "Temp")]), ])
    ci_cc <- confint(fit_cc)

    # 2. Mean imputation. Biased; underestimates variance.
    air_mean <- air_miss
    air_mean$Ozone[is.na(air_mean$Ozone)] <- mean(air_mean$Ozone, na.rm = TRUE)
    fit_mean <- lm(Ozone ~ Wind + Temp, data = air_mean)
    ci_mean <- confint(fit_mean)

    # 3. Deterministic regression imputation (lm_pred). No residual noise.
    air_pred <- air_miss %>%
      mutate(Ozone_imp = fill_NA(
        x = ., model = "lm_pred",
        posit_y = "Ozone", posit_x = c("Solar.R", "Wind", "Temp")
      ))
    fit_pred <- lm(Ozone_imp ~ Wind + Temp, data = air_pred)
    ci_pred <- confint(fit_pred)

    # 4. Proper MI with Rubin's rules (lm_bayes, m = 20)
    completed <- lapply(1:20, function(i) {
      air_miss %>%
        mutate(Ozone_imp = fill_NA(
          x = ., model = "lm_bayes",
          posit_y = "Ozone", posit_x = c("Solar.R", "Wind", "Temp")
        ))
    })
    fits <- lapply(completed, function(d) lm(Ozone_imp ~ Wind + Temp, data = d))
    pool_s <- summary(pool(fits))

    ## Pooled results from 20 imputed datasets
    ## Rubin's rules with Barnard-Rubin df adjustment
    ## Complete-data df: 148
    ##
    ## Coefficients:
    ##         term estimate std.error statistic    df   p.value conf.low conf.high
    ##  (Intercept)  -60.110   23.3420    -2.575 98.26 1.151e-02 -106.430   -13.790
    ##         Wind   -3.314    0.6715    -4.934 85.14 3.945e-06   -4.649    -1.978
    ##         Temp    1.733    0.2494     6.951 98.85 3.937e-10    1.239     2.228
    ##
    ## Pooling diagnostics:
    ##         term      ubar        b         t    riv lambda    fmi
    ##  (Intercept) 444.52602 95.54381 544.84702 0.2257 0.1841 0.2002
    ##         Wind   0.34637  0.09960   0.45095 0.3019 0.2319 0.2493
    ##         Temp   0.05087  0.01078   0.06219 0.2226 0.1821 0.1981

    # Compare Wind coefficient across all methods
    comparison <- data.frame(
      method = c("Complete cases", "Mean imputation", "Regression (lm_pred)", "MI (lm_bayes, m=20)"),
      estimate = c(coef(fit_cc)["Wind"], coef(fit_mean)["Wind"],
                   coef(fit_pred)["Wind"], pool_s$estimate[pool_s$term == "Wind"]),
      ci_low = c(ci_cc["Wind", 1], ci_mean["Wind", 1],
                 ci_pred["Wind", 1], pool_s$conf.low[pool_s$term == "Wind"]),
      ci_high = c(ci_cc["Wind", 2], ci_mean["Wind", 2],
                  ci_pred["Wind", 2], pool_s$conf.high[pool_s$term == "Wind"]),
      n_used = c(nrow(air_miss[complete.cases(air_miss[, c("Ozone", "Wind", "Temp")]), ]),
                 nrow(air_miss), nrow(air_miss), nrow(air_miss))
    )
    comparison$ci_width <- comparison$ci_high - comparison$ci_low
    comparison

    ##                 method  estimate    ci_low   ci_high n_used ci_width
    ## 1       Complete cases -3.055491 -4.369510 -1.741472    116 2.628037
    ## 2      Mean imputation -2.598643 -3.693829 -1.503456    153 2.190372
    ## 3 Regression (lm_pred) -3.372772 -4.376476 -2.369067    153 2.007409
    ## 4  MI (lm_bayes, m=20) -3.313565 -4.648706 -1.978423    153 2.670283

Notice that mean imputation and deterministic regression produce artificially narrow confidence intervals (they ignore imputation uncertainty), while complete-case analysis uses fewer observations. MI properly reflects both sources of uncertainty.

# Choosing the Number of Imputations

Rubin (1987) showed that with \(m\) imputations the efficiency relative to \(m = \infty\) is approximately \((1 + \lambda/m)^{-1}\), where \(\lambda\) is the FMI. The original recommendation of \(m = 5\) assumed FMI below 50% and was aimed at point estimates. For hypothesis tests and confidence intervals, more imputations are needed: White et al. (2011) suggested \(m \geq 20\), and von Hippel (2020) proposed a two-stage rule: run a pilot with small \(m\), estimate FMI, then set \(m\) so that the Monte Carlo error of the MI estimate is small relative to its standard error.

Since miceFast imputation is fast, there is little reason to be stingy. Use \(m = 20\) or more, and increase \(m\) until estimates and standard errors stabilize (see the sensitivity analysis above).

# Practical Checklist

1. Examine missingness patterns: Use `upset_NA()` to visualize which variables are jointly missing.

       upset_NA(air_miss, 6)

2. Check collinearity: Run `VIF()` on your predictor set. Drop or combine predictors with VIF > 10.

       VIF(air_miss, posit_y = "Ozone", posit_x = c("Solar.R", "Wind", "Temp"))

3. Choose imputation models: `lm_bayes` or `pmm` for continuous, `lda` with random `ridge` or `pmm` for categorical, `logreg = TRUE` for right-skewed variables.

4. Include auxiliary variables: Add predictors of missingness to the imputation model even if they are not in the analysis model. This makes MAR more plausible.

5. Set m ≥ 20. Since miceFast is fast, there is little cost. Increase until estimates and standard errors stabilize (see sensitivity analysis above).

6. Pool and report: Use `pool()` for Rubin’s rules. Report the imputation model, m, pooled estimates, and confidence intervals.

7. Run sensitivity analyses: Vary the model (`lm_bayes` vs `lm_noise` vs `pmm`), vary m, and compare results. Check base methods too.

## Von Hippel’s two-stage rule for m

Von Hippel (2020) proposed a two-stage procedure: run a pilot with small m, estimate FMI from the pooled output, then use the FMI to calculate how many imputations are needed for stable SE estimates. The R package howManyImputations (available on CRAN) implements this calculation directly from a `mice` mids object. For a miceFast workflow you can use the FMI from `pool()` as input:

    # Pilot with m = 5
    set.seed(2025)
    pilot <- lapply(1:5, function(i) {
      air_miss %>%
        mutate(Ozone_imp = fill_NA(x = ., model = "lm_bayes",
          posit_y = "Ozone", posit_x = c("Solar.R", "Wind", "Temp")))
    })
    pilot_pool <- pool(lapply(pilot, function(d) lm(Ozone_imp ~ Wind + Temp, data = d)))

    # Inspect FMI, the key input for deciding m
    data.frame(term = pilot_pool$term, fmi = round(pilot_pool$fmi, 3))

    ##          term   fmi
    ## 1 (Intercept) 0.159
    ## 2        Wind 0.099
    ## 3        Temp 0.161

    # For the exact formula and its derivation see:
    # von Hippel (2020) "How many imputations do you need?", Sociological Methods & Research
    # R implementation: install.packages("howManyImputations")

# Comparison with mice

Feature | mice | miceFast
--- | --- | ---
MI framework | Complete (FCS/MICE algorithm) | Building blocks for MI
Imputation models | 25+ built-in methods | `lm_pred`, `lm_bayes`, `lm_noise`, `lda`, `pmm`
Chained equations | Yes (iterative multivariate) | Single-pass sequential; not iterative FCS
Speed | R-based | C++/Armadillo, significantly faster
Grouping | Via `blocks` | Built-in, auto-sorted
Weights | Limited | Full support
Pooling | `mice::pool()` | `miceFast::pool()`
Diagnostics | Trace plots, convergence | `compare_imp()`, `upset_NA()`

mice (van Buuren & Groothuis-Oudshoorn, 2011) is the right choice when you need the full chained-equations algorithm, passive imputation, or its diagnostic tooling. miceFast is useful when speed matters (large data, many groups, many imputations) or when you want imputation inside `dplyr`/`data.table` pipelines. The two can be combined: use miceFast for imputation and mice for diagnostics, or vice versa.

Important caveat: The convenience functions (`fill_NA`, `fill_NA_N`) fill variables in a single pass. For datasets where the missing-data pattern is monotone or nearly so, a single pass is sufficient. With complex interlocking patterns, however, you can mimic iterative FCS (chained equations) using the OOP interface: call `update_var()` for each variable in a loop and cycle through multiple iterations, exactly like mice’s algorithm:

    # Save which cells are originally NA
    na1 <- is.na(mat[, 1]); na2 <- is.na(mat[, 2]); na3 <- is.na(mat[, 3])
    # Initialise NAs (e.g. column means) so predictors are always complete
    for (j in seq_len(ncol(mat))) {
      na_j <- is.na(mat[, j])
      if (any(na_j)) mat[na_j, j] <- mean(mat[!na_j, j])
    }
    model$set_data(mat)
    for (iter in 1:5) {
      col1 <- model$get_data()[, 1]; col1[na1] <- NaN; model$update_var(1, col1)
      model$update_var(1, model$impute("lm_bayes", 1, c(2, 3, 4))$imputations)
      col2 <- model$get_data()[, 2]; col2[na2] <- NaN; model$update_var(2, col2)
      model$update_var(2, model$impute("lm_bayes", 2, c(1, 3, 4))$imputations)
      col3 <- model$get_data()[, 3]; col3[na3] <- NaN; model$update_var(3, col3)
      model$update_var(3, model$impute("lda",      3, c(1, 2, 4))$imputations)
    }

The key is the save-restore-impute cycle: record which cells are originally missing, initialise them so predictors are complete, then before each variable’s imputation restore its original NAs. Without this step, rows where both the dependent variable and a predictor are jointly missing would never be imputed.

`update_var()` permanently modifies the data matrix by reference, so each variable’s imputation conditions on the most recently imputed values for all other variables – the same sequential conditioning that defines the MICE/FCS algorithm. Wrap this in `lapply(1:m, ...)` and you have full iterative MI at C++ speed.

The same logic works with `fill_NA` in a data.table pipeline, since `:=` updates columns in place:

    dt <- naive_fill_NA(copy(dt_orig))         # initialise
    na_oz <- is.na(dt_orig$Ozone); na_sr <- is.na(dt_orig[["Solar.R"]])
    for (iter in 1:5) {
      set(dt, which(na_oz), "Ozone", NA_real_) # restore NAs
      dt[, Ozone   := fill_NA(.SD, "lm_bayes", "Ozone",   c("Solar.R", "Wind", "Temp"))]
      set(dt, which(na_sr), "Solar.R", NA_real_)
      dt[, Solar.R := fill_NA(.SD, "lm_bayes", "Solar.R", c("Ozone", "Wind", "Temp"))]
    }

With dplyr the approach is the same, just re-`mutate` each variable in sequence inside the iteration loop. The OOP interface is fastest because it avoids R-level data copies, but the convenience functions work equally well for correctness.

# References

- Rubin, D.B. (1987). Multiple Imputation for Nonresponse in Surveys. John Wiley & Sons.

- Barnard, J. and Rubin, D.B. (1999). Small-sample degrees of freedom with multiple imputation. Biometrika, 86(4), 948-955.

- Collins, L.M., Schafer, J.L., and Kam, C.-M. (2001). A comparison of inclusive and restrictive strategies in modern missing data procedures. Psychological Methods, 6(4), 330-351.

- Little, R.J.A. (1988). A test of missing completely at random for multivariate data with missing values. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 83(404), 1198-1202.

- Little, R.J.A. and Rubin, D.B. (2002). Statistical Analysis with Missing Data (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons.

- Meng, X.-L. (1994). Multiple-imputation inferences with uncongenial sources of input. Statistical Science, 9(4), 538-558.

- Schafer, J.L. (1997). Analysis of Incomplete Multivariate Data. Chapman & Hall/CRC.

- van Buuren, S. (2018). Flexible Imputation of Missing Data (2nd ed.). Chapman & Hall/CRC. Online version.

- van Buuren, S. and Groothuis-Oudshoorn, K. (2011). mice: Multivariate Imputation by Chained Equations in R. Journal of Statistical Software, 45(3), 1-67.

- White, I.R., Royston, P., and Wood, A.M. (2011). Multiple imputation using chained equations: Issues and guidance for practice. Statistics in Medicine, 30(4), 377-399.

- von Hippel, P.T. (2020). How many imputations do you need? A two-stage calculation using a quadratic rule. Sociological Methods & Research, 49(3), 699-718.