Author: José Evandeilton Lopes
Date: 2026-05-27

# Introduction to gkwdist: Generalized Kumaraswamy Distribution Family

#### José Evandeilton Lopes

#### 2026-05-27

# 1 Introduction

The gkwdist package provides a comprehensive implementation of the Generalized Kumaraswamy (GKw) distribution family for modeling bounded continuous data on the unit interval \((0,1)\). All functions are implemented in C++ via RcppArmadillo, providing substantial performance improvements over pure R implementations.

## 1.1 Key Features

- Seven nested distributions: GKw, BKw, KKw, EKw, Mc, Kw, and Beta
- Standard distribution functions: density, CDF, quantile, and random generation
- Analytical derivatives: log-likelihood, gradient, and Hessian for efficient inference
- High performance: C++ implementation with 10-100× speedup
- No external dependencies: Uses only base R functions in examples

    library(gkwdist)

# 2 The Distribution Family

## 2.1 Mathematical Foundation

The five-parameter Generalized Kumaraswamy distribution has probability density function:

\[f(x; \alpha, \beta, \gamma, \delta, \lambda) = \frac{\lambda\alpha\beta x^{\alpha-1}}{B(\gamma, \delta+1)} (1-x^\alpha)^{\beta-1} [1-(1-x^\alpha)^\beta]^{\gamma\lambda-1} \{1-[1-(1-x^\alpha)^\beta]^\lambda\}^\delta\]

for \(x \in (0,1)\) and all parameters positive, where \(B(\cdot, \cdot)\) denotes the beta function.

## 2.2 Nested Sub-families

The GKw distribution generalizes several important distributions:

Nested Structure of GKw Family
Distribution | Parameters | Relationship
--- | --- | ---
Generalized Kumaraswamy (GKw) | α, β, γ, δ, λ | Full model
Beta-Kumaraswamy (BKw) | α, β, γ, δ | λ = 1
Kumaraswamy-Kumaraswamy (KKw) | α, β, δ, λ | γ = 1
Exponentiated Kumaraswamy (EKw) | α, β, λ | γ = 1, δ = 0
McDonald (Mc) | γ, δ, λ | α = β = 1
Kumaraswamy (Kw) | α, β | γ = δ = λ = 1
Beta | γ, δ | α = β = λ = 1

# 3 Basic Distribution Functions

## 3.1 Density, CDF, Quantile, and Random Generation

All distributions follow the standard R naming convention:

    # Set parameters for Kumaraswamy distribution
    alpha <- 2.5
    beta <- 3.5

    # Density
    x <- seq(0.01, 0.99, length.out = 100)
    density <- dkw(x, alpha, beta)

    # CDF
    cdf_values <- pkw(x, alpha, beta)

    # Quantile function
    probabilities <- c(0.25, 0.5, 0.75)
    quantiles <- qkw(probabilities, alpha, beta)

    # Random generation
    set.seed(123)
    random_sample <- rkw(1000, alpha, beta)

## 3.2 Visualization

    # PDF
    plot(x, density,
      type = "l", lwd = 2, col = "#2E4057",
      main = "Probability Density Function",
      xlab = "x", ylab = "f(x)", las = 1
    )
    grid(col = "gray90")

    # CDF
    plot(x, cdf_values,
      type = "l", lwd = 2, col = "#8B0000",
      main = "Cumulative Distribution Function",
      xlab = "x", ylab = "F(x)", las = 1
    )
    grid(col = "gray90")

    # Histogram with theoretical density
    hist(random_sample,
      breaks = 30, probability = TRUE,
      col = "lightblue", border = "white",
      main = "Random Sample", xlab = "x", ylab = "Density", las = 1
    )
    lines(x, density, col = "#8B0000", lwd = 2)
    grid(col = "gray90")

    # Q-Q plot
    theoretical_q <- qkw(ppoints(length(random_sample)), alpha, beta)
    empirical_q <- sort(random_sample)
    plot(theoretical_q, empirical_q,
      pch = 19, col = rgb(0, 0, 1, 0.3),
      main = "Q-Q Plot", xlab = "Theoretical Quantiles",
      ylab = "Sample Quantiles", las = 1
    )
    abline(0, 1, col = "#8B0000", lwd = 2, lty = 2)
    grid(col = "gray90")

# 4 Comparing Distribution Shapes

## 4.1 Flexibility Across Families

    x_grid <- seq(0.001, 0.999, length.out = 500)

    # Compute densities
    d_gkw <- dgkw(x_grid, 2, 3, 1.5, 2, 1.2)
    d_bkw <- dbkw(x_grid, 2, 3, 1.5, 2)
    d_ekw <- dekw(x_grid, 2, 3, 1.5)
    d_kw <- dkw(x_grid, 2, 3)
    d_beta <- dbeta_(x_grid, 2, 3)

    # Plot comparison
    plot(x_grid, d_gkw,
      type = "l", lwd = 2, col = "#2E4057",
      ylim = c(0, max(d_gkw, d_bkw, d_ekw, d_kw, d_beta)),
      main = "Density Comparison Across Families",
      xlab = "x", ylab = "Density", las = 1
    )
    lines(x_grid, d_bkw, lwd = 2, col = "#8B0000")
    lines(x_grid, d_ekw, lwd = 2, col = "#006400")
    lines(x_grid, d_kw, lwd = 2, col = "#FFA07A")
    lines(x_grid, d_beta, lwd = 2, col = "#808080")

    legend("topright",
      legend = c(
        "GKw (5 par)", "BKw (4 par)", "EKw (3 par)",
        "Kw (2 par)", "Beta (2 par)"
      ),
      col = c("#2E4057", "#8B0000", "#006400", "#FFA07A", "#808080"),
      lwd = 2, bty = "n", cex = 0.9
    )
    grid(col = "gray90")

# 5 Maximum Likelihood Estimation

## 5.1 Basic MLE Workflow

    # Generate synthetic data
    set.seed(2024)
    n <- 1000
    true_params <- c(alpha = 2.5, beta = 3.5)
    data <- rkw(n, true_params[1], true_params[2])

    # Maximum likelihood estimation
    fit <- optim(
      par = c(2, 3), # Starting values
      fn = llkw, # Negative log-likelihood
      gr = grkw, # Analytical gradient
      data = data,
      method = "BFGS",
      hessian = TRUE
    )

    # Extract results
    mle <- fit$par
    names(mle) <- c("alpha", "beta")
    se <- sqrt(diag(solve(fit$hessian)))

## 5.2 Inference Results

    # Construct summary table
    results <- data.frame(
      Parameter = c("alpha", "beta"),
      True = true_params,
      MLE = mle,
      SE = se,
      CI_Lower = mle - 1.96 * se,
      CI_Upper = mle + 1.96 * se,
      Coverage = (mle - 1.96 * se <= true_params) &
        (true_params <= mle + 1.96 * se)
    )

    knitr::kable(results,
      digits = 4,
      caption = "Maximum Likelihood Estimates with 95% Confidence Intervals"
    )

Maximum Likelihood Estimates with 95% Confidence Intervals
| Parameter | True | MLE | SE | CI_Lower | CI_Upper | Coverage
--- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | ---
alpha | alpha | 2.5 | 2.5547 | 0.0816 | 2.3948 | 2.7147 | TRUE
beta | beta | 3.5 | 3.5681 | 0.1926 | 3.1905 | 3.9457 | TRUE

    # Information criteria
    cat("\nModel Fit Statistics:\n")
    #>
    #> Model Fit Statistics:
    cat("Log-likelihood:", -fit$value, "\n")
    #> Log-likelihood: 281.6324
    cat("AIC:", 2 * fit$value + 2 * length(mle), "\n")
    #> AIC: -559.2649
    cat("BIC:", 2 * fit$value + length(mle) * log(n), "\n")
    #> BIC: -549.4494

## 5.3 Goodness-of-Fit Assessment

    # Fitted vs true density
    x_grid <- seq(0.001, 0.999, length.out = 200)
    fitted_dens <- dkw(x_grid, mle[1], mle[2])
    true_dens <- dkw(x_grid, true_params[1], true_params[2])

    hist(data,
      breaks = 40, probability = TRUE,
      col = "lightgray", border = "white",
      main = "Goodness-of-Fit: Kumaraswamy Distribution",
      xlab = "Data", ylab = "Density", las = 1
    )
    lines(x_grid, fitted_dens, col = "#8B0000", lwd = 2)
    lines(x_grid, true_dens, col = "#006400", lwd = 2, lty = 2)
    legend("topright",
      legend = c("Observed Data", "Fitted Model", "True Model"),
      col = c("gray", "#8B0000", "#006400"),
      lwd = c(8, 2, 2), lty = c(1, 1, 2), bty = "n"
    )
    grid(col = "gray90")

# 6 Model Selection

## 6.1 Comparing Nested Models

    # Generate data from EKw distribution
    set.seed(456)
    n <- 1500
    data_ekw <- rekw(n, alpha = 2, beta = 3, lambda = 1.5)

    # Define candidate models
    models <- list(
      Beta = list(
        fn = llbeta,
        gr = grbeta,
        start = c(2, 2),
        npar = 2
      ),
      Kw = list(
        fn = llkw,
        gr = grkw,
        start = c(2, 3),
        npar = 2
      ),
      EKw = list(
        fn = llekw,
        gr = grekw,
        start = c(2, 3, 1.5),
        npar = 3
      ),
      Mc = list(
        fn = llmc,
        gr = grmc,
        start = c(2, 2, 1.5),
        npar = 3
      )
    )

    # Fit all models
    results_list <- lapply(names(models), function(name) {
      m <- models[[name]]
      fit <- optim(
        par = m$start,
        fn = m$fn,
        gr = m$gr,
        data = data_ekw,
        method = "BFGS"
      )

      loglik <- -fit$value
      data.frame(
        Model = name,
        nPar = m$npar,
        LogLik = loglik,
        AIC = -2 * loglik + 2 * m$npar,
        BIC = -2 * loglik + m$npar * log(n),
        Converged = fit$convergence == 0
      )
    })

    # Combine results
    comparison <- do.call(rbind, results_list)
    comparison <- comparison[order(comparison$AIC), ]
    rownames(comparison) <- NULL

    knitr::kable(comparison,
      digits = 2,
      caption = "Model Selection via Information Criteria"
    )

Model Selection via Information Criteria
Model | nPar | LogLik | AIC | BIC | Converged
--- | --- | --- | --- | --- | ---
Kw | 2 | 461.90 | -919.80 | -909.17 | TRUE
Beta | 2 | 461.54 | -919.09 | -908.46 | TRUE
Mc | 3 | 462.32 | -918.63 | -902.69 | TRUE
EKw | 3 | 462.17 | -918.35 | -902.41 | TRUE

## 6.2 Interpretation

    best_model <- comparison$Model[1]
    cat("\nBest model by AIC:", best_model, "\n")
    #>
    #> Best model by AIC: Kw
    cat("Best model by BIC:", comparison$Model[which.min(comparison$BIC)], "\n")
    #> Best model by BIC: Kw

    # Delta AIC
    comparison$Delta_AIC <- comparison$AIC - min(comparison$AIC)
    cat("\nΔAIC relative to best model:\n")
    #>
    #> ΔAIC relative to best model:
    print(comparison[, c("Model", "Delta_AIC")])
    #>   Model Delta_AIC
    #> 1    Kw 0.0000000
    #> 2  Beta 0.7129854
    #> 3    Mc 1.1677176
    #> 4   EKw 1.4528716

# 7 Advanced Topics

## 7.1 Profile Likelihood

Profile likelihood provides more accurate confidence intervals than Wald intervals, especially for small samples or near parameter boundaries.

    # Generate data
    set.seed(789)
    data_profile <- rkw(500, alpha = 2.5, beta = 3.5)

    # Fit model
    fit_profile <- optim(
      par = c(2, 3),
      fn = llkw,
      gr = grkw,
      data = data_profile,
      method = "BFGS",
      hessian = TRUE
    )

    mle_profile <- fit_profile$par

    # Compute profile likelihood for alpha
    alpha_grid <- seq(mle_profile[1] - 1, mle_profile[1] + 1, length.out = 50)
    alpha_grid <- alpha_grid[alpha_grid > 0]
    profile_ll <- numeric(length(alpha_grid))

    for (i in seq_along(alpha_grid)) {
      profile_fit <- optimize(
        f = function(beta) llkw(c(alpha_grid[i], beta), data_profile),
        interval = c(0.1, 10),
        maximum = FALSE
      )
      profile_ll[i] <- -profile_fit$objective
    }

    # Plot

    # Profile likelihood
    chi_crit <- qchisq(0.95, df = 1)
    threshold <- max(profile_ll) - chi_crit / 2

    plot(alpha_grid, profile_ll,
      type = "l", lwd = 2, col = "#2E4057",
      main = "Profile Log-Likelihood",
      xlab = expression(alpha), ylab = "Profile Log-Likelihood", las = 1
    )
    abline(v = mle_profile[1], col = "#8B0000", lty = 2, lwd = 2)
    abline(v = 2.5, col = "#006400", lty = 2, lwd = 2)
    abline(h = threshold, col = "#808080", lty = 3, lwd = 1.5)
    legend("topright",
      legend = c("MLE", "True", "95% CI"),
      col = c("#8B0000", "#006400", "#808080"),
      lty = c(2, 2, 3), lwd = 2, bty = "n", cex = 0.8
    )
    grid(col = "gray90")

    # Wald vs Profile CI comparison
    se_profile <- sqrt(diag(solve(fit_profile$hessian)))
    wald_ci <- mle_profile[1] + c(-1.96, 1.96) * se_profile[1]
    profile_ci <- range(alpha_grid[profile_ll >= threshold])

    plot(1:2, c(mle_profile[1], mle_profile[1]),
      xlim = c(0.5, 2.5),
      ylim = range(c(wald_ci, profile_ci)),
      pch = 19, col = "#8B0000", cex = 1.5,
      main = "Confidence Interval Comparison",
      xlab = "", ylab = expression(alpha), xaxt = "n", las = 1
    )
    axis(1, at = 1:2, labels = c("Wald", "Profile"))

    # Add CIs
    segments(1, wald_ci[1], 1, wald_ci[2], lwd = 3, col = "#2E4057")
    segments(2, profile_ci[1], 2, profile_ci[2], lwd = 3, col = "#8B0000")
    abline(h = 2.5, col = "#006400", lty = 2, lwd = 2)

    legend("topright",
      legend = c("MLE", "True", "Wald 95% CI", "Profile 95% CI"),
      col = c("#8B0000", "#006400", "#2E4057", "#8B0000"),
      pch = c(19, NA, NA, NA), lty = c(NA, 2, 1, 1),
      lwd = c(NA, 2, 3, 3), bty = "n", cex = 0.8
    )
    grid(col = "gray90")

## 7.2 Confidence Regions

For multivariate inference, confidence ellipses show the joint uncertainty of parameter estimates.

    # Compute variance-covariance matrix
    vcov_matrix <- solve(fit_profile$hessian)

    # Create confidence ellipse (95%)
    theta <- seq(0, 2 * pi, length.out = 100)
    chi2_val <- qchisq(0.95, df = 2)

    eig_decomp <- eigen(vcov_matrix)
    ellipse <- matrix(NA, nrow = 100, ncol = 2)

    for (i in 1:100) {
      v <- c(cos(theta[i]), sin(theta[i]))
      ellipse[i, ] <- mle_profile + sqrt(chi2_val) *
        (eig_decomp$vectors %*% diag(sqrt(eig_decomp$values)) %*% v)
    }

    # Marginal CIs
    se_marg <- sqrt(diag(vcov_matrix))
    ci_alpha_marg <- mle_profile[1] + c(-1.96, 1.96) * se_marg[1]
    ci_beta_marg <- mle_profile[2] + c(-1.96, 1.96) * se_marg[2]

    # Plot
    plot(ellipse[, 1], ellipse[, 2],
      type = "l", lwd = 2, col = "#2E4057",
      main = "95% Joint Confidence Region",
      xlab = expression(alpha), ylab = expression(beta), las = 1
    )

    # Add marginal CIs
    abline(v = ci_alpha_marg, col = "#808080", lty = 3, lwd = 1.5)
    abline(h = ci_beta_marg, col = "#808080", lty = 3, lwd = 1.5)

    # Add points
    points(mle_profile[1], mle_profile[2], pch = 19, col = "#8B0000", cex = 1.5)
    points(2.5, 3.5, pch = 17, col = "#006400", cex = 1.5)

    legend("topright",
      legend = c("MLE", "True", "Joint 95% CR", "Marginal 95% CI"),
      col = c("#8B0000", "#006400", "#2E4057", "#808080"),
      pch = c(19, 17, NA, NA), lty = c(NA, NA, 1, 3),
      lwd = c(NA, NA, 2, 1.5), bty = "n"
    )
    grid(col = "gray90")

# 8 Performance Benchmarking

## 8.1 Computational Efficiency

The C++ implementation provides substantial performance gains:

    # Generate large dataset
    n_large <- 10000
    data_large <- rkw(n_large, 2, 3)

    # Compare timings
    system.time({
      manual_ll <- -sum(log(dkw(data_large, 2, 3)))
    })

    system.time({
      cpp_ll <- llkw(c(2, 3), data_large)
    })

    # Typical results: C++ is 10-50× faster

# 9 Practical Applications

## 9.1 Example: Modeling Proportions

    # Simulate customer conversion rates
    set.seed(999)
    n_customers <- 800

    # Generate conversion rates from EKw distribution
    conversion_rates <- rekw(n_customers, alpha = 1.8, beta = 2.5, lambda = 1.3)

    # Fit model
    fit_app <- optim(
      par = c(1.5, 2, 1),
      fn = llekw,
      gr = grekw,
      data = conversion_rates,
      method = "BFGS",
      hessian = TRUE
    )

    mle_app <- fit_app$par
    names(mle_app) <- c("alpha", "beta", "lambda")

    # Summary statistics
    cat("Sample Summary:\n")
    #> Sample Summary:
    cat("Mean:", mean(conversion_rates), "\n")
    #> Mean: 0.5039841
    cat("Median:", median(conversion_rates), "\n")
    #> Median: 0.5102676
    cat("SD:", sd(conversion_rates), "\n\n")
    #> SD: 0.2020025

    cat("Model Estimates:\n")
    #> Model Estimates:
    print(round(mle_app, 3))
    #>  alpha   beta lambda
    #>  3.435  3.584  0.606

    # Visualization
    x_app <- seq(0.001, 0.999, length.out = 200)
    fitted_app <- dekw(x_app, mle_app[1], mle_app[2], mle_app[3])

    hist(conversion_rates,
      breaks = 30, probability = TRUE,
      col = "lightblue", border = "white",
      main = "Customer Conversion Rates",
      xlab = "Conversion Rate", ylab = "Density", las = 1
    )
    lines(x_app, fitted_app, col = "#8B0000", lwd = 2)
    legend("topright",
      legend = c("Observed", "EKw Fit"),
      col = c("lightblue", "#8B0000"),
      lwd = c(8, 2), bty = "n"
    )
    grid(col = "gray90")

# 10 Recommendations

## 10.1 When to Use Each Distribution

Data Characteristics | Recommended Distribution | Parameters
--- | --- | ---
Symmetric, unimodal | Beta | 2
Asymmetric, unimodal | Kumaraswamy | 2
Flexible unimodal | Exponentiated Kumaraswamy | 3
Bimodal or U-shaped | Generalized Kumaraswamy | 5
J-shaped (monotonic) | Kumaraswamy or Beta | 2
Unknown shape | Start with Kw, test nested models | 2-5

## 10.2 Model Selection Workflow

1. Exploratory Analysis: Examine histograms and summary statistics
2. Start Simple: Fit Beta and Kumaraswamy (2 parameters)
3. Diagnostic Checking: Use Q-Q plots and formal tests
4. Progressive Complexity: Add parameters if needed (EKw → BKw → GKw)
5. Information Criteria: Balance fit quality and parsimony using AIC/BIC
6. Validation: Check residuals and perform cross-validation

# 11 Conclusion

The gkwdist package provides a comprehensive toolkit for modeling bounded continuous data. Key advantages include:

- Flexibility: Seven nested distributions accommodate diverse data shapes
- Efficiency: C++ implementation ensures fast computation
- Completeness: Full suite of distribution and inference functions
- Reliability: Analytical derivatives guarantee numerical accuracy

## 11.1 Further Reading

For theoretical details and applications, see:

- Carrasco, J. M. F., Ferrari, S. L. P., and Cordeiro, G. M. (2010). “A new generalized Kumaraswamy distribution.” arXiv:1004.0911.
- Jones, M. C. (2009). “Kumaraswamy’s distribution: A beta-type distribution with some tractability advantages.” Statistical Methodology, 6(1), 70-81.
- Kumaraswamy, P. (1980). “A generalized probability density function for double-bounded random processes.” Journal of Hydrology, 46(1-2), 79-88.

# 12 Session Information

    sessionInfo()
    #> R version 4.5.2 (2025-10-31)
    #> Platform: x86_64-pc-linux-gnu
    #> Running under: Zorin OS 18.1
    #>
    #> Matrix products: default
    #> BLAS:   /usr/lib/x86_64-linux-gnu/openblas-pthread/libblas.so.3
    #> LAPACK: /usr/lib/x86_64-linux-gnu/openblas-pthread/libopenblasp-r0.3.26.so;  LAPACK version 3.12.0
    #>
    #> locale:
    #>  [1] LC_CTYPE=pt_BR.UTF-8       LC_NUMERIC=C
    #>  [3] LC_TIME=pt_BR.UTF-8        LC_COLLATE=C
    #>  [5] LC_MONETARY=pt_BR.UTF-8    LC_MESSAGES=en_US.UTF-8
    #>  [7] LC_PAPER=pt_BR.UTF-8       LC_NAME=C
    #>  [9] LC_ADDRESS=C               LC_TELEPHONE=C
    #> [11] LC_MEASUREMENT=pt_BR.UTF-8 LC_IDENTIFICATION=C
    #>
    #> time zone: America/Sao_Paulo
    #> tzcode source: system (glibc)
    #>
    #> attached base packages:
    #> [1] stats     graphics  grDevices utils     datasets  methods   base
    #>
    #> other attached packages:
    #> [1] gkwdist_1.1.4
    #>
    #> loaded via a namespace (and not attached):
    #>  [1] digest_0.6.39          R6_2.6.1               numDeriv_2016.8-1.1
    #>  [4] RcppArmadillo_15.2.3-1 fastmap_1.2.0          xfun_0.56
    #>  [7] magrittr_2.0.4         cachem_1.1.0           knitr_1.51
    #> [10] htmltools_0.5.9        rmarkdown_2.30         lifecycle_1.0.5
    #> [13] cli_3.6.5              sass_0.4.10            jquerylib_0.1.4
    #> [16] compiler_4.5.2         tools_4.5.2            evaluate_1.0.5
    #> [19] bslib_0.10.0           Rcpp_1.1.1             yaml_2.3.12
    #> [22] otel_0.2.0             rlang_1.1.7            jsonlite_2.0.0