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\title{Brassica BASIC}
\author{Mike Lee}

\begin{document}
\maketitle

\noindent
Brassica interprets an expanded subset of 1975 Altair/Microsoft BASIC.\\
This enables running programs of historical interest in their prim\ae{}val
state.

\section{Lines}
Line numbers label branching destinations, but are not strictly necessary
elsewhere.
Blank lines, numbered or not, are allowed.
Lines beginning with \ib{\#} are comments.
Colons separate multiple statements on the same line.
The presence or absence of horizontal whitespace makes no difference anywhere
outside of string literals, \ib{DATA} values, and line numbers.
Aside from the names of variables and user-defined functions, the interpreter is
case-insensitive.

\begin{example}
\# infinite loop
100
110 let x = x + 1
\phantom{120} go to 100 : REM unnumbered line
\end{example}

\section{Variables}
Legitimate names consist of a letter followed by zero or more alpha\-numeric
characters, possibly followed by a data-type indicator (\ib{\%} or \ib{\$}),
possibly followed by array subscripts.
Names are case-sensitive, not limited to two characters, and may not contain
reserved words (\ib{TO}, \ib{INT}, etc.).
Arrays of character strings are supported.
The six variables below are distinct and may coexist.
Subscripts begin from zero.
All BASIC variables are global in scope.
Variables may be referenced without prior definition, in which case numbers are
initialised to \ib{0}, and strings to \ib{""}.
Referencing an undimensioned array \ib{DIM}s it as \ib{0} -- \ib{10} on each
subscript.

\vspace{2ex}
\bit{X}{A numerical scalar.}
\bit{X\%}{An integer-constrained scalar (signed).}
\bit{X\$}{A character string.}
\bit{X(10)}{A scalar element of a one-dimensional numerical array.}
\bit{X\%(4,6)}{A scalar element of a two-dimensional integer array.}
\bit{X\$(0,0,0)}{One string of a three-dimensional array of strings.}

\section{Operators}
In decreasing order of precedence:

\vspace{2ex}
\bit{(\ldots)}{Bracketing (grouping operation, including functions).}
\bit{\string^}{Exponentiation.}
\bit{\textnormal{unary} + -}{Identity and negation.}
\bit{* /}{Multiplication and division.}
\bit{\bs}{Integer division.}
\bit{MOD}{Modulo.}
\bit{+ -}{Addition and subtraction (and string concatenation).}
\bit{= <> < <= > >=}{
Equal to, not equal to, less than, less than or equal to, greater than, greater
than or equal to.
}
\bit{NOT}{Bitwise logical NOT.}
\bit{AND}{Bitwise logical AND.}
\bit{OR}{Bitwise logical OR.}
\bit{XOR}{Bitwise logical XOR.}
\newline

\vspace{2ex}
Operators of equal precedence, such as the six relationals, are applied in
left-to-right order.
The equivalence operator is a single \ib{=}, which is also used for the
assignment operator immediately after an expressed or implied \ib{LET}.
Whitespace is ignored; be wary of \ib{X OR} and \ib{T OR} (use parentheses).
Consecutive operators need not be separated by parentheses, but see below.

\vspace{4ex}
Logically false relations evaluate to \ib{0}, true relations to \ib{-1}.
There is no short-circuiting.
Relational operations are allowed between strings, and are case-insensitive
(hence, \ib{"a" = "A"}, while \ib{ASC("a") <> ASC("A")}).
Addition of strings performs concatenation.

\vspace{4ex}
Operands of bitwise operators are truncated to integers before the operator is
applied.
\ib{NOT(X\%) = -(X\% + 1)}.

\vspace{4ex}
Operands of \ib{\bs} and \ib{MOD} are truncated to integers before the operator
is applied.
Results from \ib{\bs} are then rounded to the nearest integer towards zero.
Hence, \ib{-2\bs{}3 = 0 = 2\bs{}3}, as opposed to \ib{INT(-2/3) = -1}.
The modulo operator is subsequently defined via
\begin{example}
A MOD B\quad=\quad{}INT(A) - INT(B) * (A\bs{}B)
\end{example}
If an alternative definition is required, perhaps a generalisation to
floating-point values, use something like:
\begin{example}
\ib{DEF FNMO(A,B)\quad=\quad{}A - B * INT(A/B)}
\end{example}

\vspace{4ex}
The unary negation (\ib{-}) and logical NOT (\ib{NOT}) operators imply a
bracketing extending to (not around) the next operator of lower precedence.
The unary identity operator (\ib{+}) acts only on the value to its immediate
right.
In effect, the unaries act as functions.
Hence;

\begin{example}
A\string^B\string^C\quad=\quad{}A\string^+B\string^C\quad=\quad(A\string^B)\string^C
\end{example}
while
\begin{example}
A\string^--B\string^C\quad=\quad{}A\string^-(-(B\string^C))\quad=\quad{}A\string^(B\string^C)
\end{example}
and furthermore,
\begin{example}
A * NOT B + NOT C + NOT D + E AND F
\phantom{=}=\quad{}A * NOT(B + NOT(C + NOT(D + E))) AND F
\phantom{=}=\quad{}A * ((NOT B) - (NOT C) + (NOT D) - E) AND F
\end{example}
(This is the behaviour of Commodore BASIC v2.)

\newpage
\section{Commands}

All BASIC statements begin with a command keyword.
The absence of an overt keyword implies \ib{LET}.
\yspace

\bit{CLEAR}{
Deletes all variables, arrays, and user-defined functions.
May be followed by a positive number, which is ignored.
}\yspace

\bit{DATA}{
Lists constant values for \ib{READ}ing.\\
\iib{DATA 3, 4.5E-2, REM, A B C, " D,:E "}\\
\iib{REM two numbers and three strings}
}\yspace

\bit{DEF FN}{
Defines a custom function.
\ib{FN} forms the beginning of its (case-sensitive) name, which must end with
the appropriate return-type indicator (\ib{\$}, \ib{\%}, or none).\\
\iib{DEF FNA(X) = X + C}\\
\iib{def fnc\$(a\$,n) = mid\$(a\$,n,1)}\\
\iib{PRINT FNA(7) fnc\$("ABC",2)}
}\yspace

\bit{DELAY}{
Suspends execution for a time.
(Replaces delay loops.)\\
\iib{DELAY 2 ~:REM waits two seconds}
}\yspace

\bit{DIM}{
Specifies the domain of an array variable's subscripts.
Each subscript runs from zero to its specified limit (with both extremes
included).\\
\iib{DIM A\$(5), X(2,6)}\\
\iib{REM X has 3 * 7 = 21 elements}
}\yspace

\bit{END}{
Terminates execution quietly.
}\yspace

\bit{FOR\ldots{}TO\ldots{}STEP}{
Begins a loop, iterating over some (non-array) variable.
The expression between \ib{FOR} and \ib{TO} is an implied \ib{LET}, defining the
iterator.
The \ib{STEP} (increment) is optional, and defaults to \ib{1}.
The termination threshold, appearing after \ib{TO}, is locked-in as a constant
when the loop is initiated.\\
\iib{X=3:~FOR I=1 TO X:~PRINT I:~X=10:~NEXT}\\
\iib{REM prints 1, 2, 3.}\yspace\\
Because the loop-termination condition is only tested at the bottom (by the
\ib{NEXT}), loops always execute at least once.\\
\iib{FOR I = 9 TO 5 STEP +2:~PRINT I:~NEXT}\\
\iib{REM this prints 9.}\yspace\\
Beginning a new loop terminates any prior loop over the same iterator within the
same subroutine (see \ib{GOSUB}).
Termination of a loop also terminates any loops nested within it.\\
\iib{FOR I=1 TO 3:~FOR J=1 TO 3:~FOR I=1 TO 3}\\
\iib{NEXT I:~NEXT J}\\
\iib{REM next-without-for error at the `NEXT J'}
}\yspace

\bit{GOSUB}{
Branches to a new subroutine.
The destination must be a constant literal line number.
While variables have global scope, loops are only visible within the subroutine
they were initiated in.\\
\iib{100 FOR I=1 TO 3:~GOSUB 200}\\
\iib{200 NEXT :REM next-without-for error here}\yspace\\
\iib{10 REM this prints 1 2 5 6 8}\\
\iib{20 FOR I=1 TO 8:~PRINT I;}\\
\iib{30 IF I=2 THEN GOSUB 50}\\
\iib{40 NEXT I:~PRINT:~END}\\
\iib{50 FOR I=5 TO 6:~PRINT I;:~NEXT I}\\
\iib{60 RETURN}
}\yspace

\bit{GOTO}{
Branches to a line number.
The destination must be a constant literal.
The word `\ib{GO}' is reserved by BASIC in its own right.\\
\iib{GOTO 840}
}\yspace

\bit{IF\ldots{}GOTO}{
Conditional branching.
If the condition is true, execution jumps to the specified line.
Otherwise, execution continues with the next line.
Non-zero numbers and non-empty strings are considered true.\\
\iib{IF X > 5 GOTO 1000}
}\yspace

\bit{IF\ldots{}THEN}{
Conditional execution.
If the condition is true, execution continues along the same line.
If the condition is false, execution moves to the next line.
Non-zero numbers and non-empty strings are considered true.\\
\iib{IF X > 5 THEN 1000 :REM same as IF - GOTO}\yspace\\
\iib{10 REM GOTO does the work of ELSE}\\
\iib{20 IF A\$ THEN X=X+1:~GOSUB 500:~GOTO 40}\\
\iib{30 X=0:~B\$="Z"}\\
\iib{40 REM line 30 is the ELSE block}
}\yspace

\bit{IF\ldots{}THEN\ldots{}ELSE}{
Conditional execution.
If the condition is true, the statement before \ib{ELSE} is executed.
If the condition is false, the statement after \ib{ELSE} is executed.
In either case, execution proceeds to any further statements on the line.
When statements are nested, \ib{THEN}s and \ib{ELSE}s are paired in the same
manner as opening and closing parentheses.\\
\iib{IF X THEN PRINT "T" ELSE PRINT "F":~A = 1}\\
\iib{REM A is assigned in either case}\yspace\\
\iib{IF X THEN IF Y THEN 700 ELSE 800:~B = 2}\\
\iib{REM the ELSE is paired with the second THEN}\\
\iib{REM the B statement is unreachable}
}\yspace

\bit{INPUT}{
Accepts input from the terminal.
The user is automatically re-prompted on entering the wrong type or number of
comma-separated values.
(To enter a string with a comma in it, wrap it in double quotes.)\\
\iib{INPUT ~~~~~~~~~:REM just wait for enter}\\
\iib{INPUT X(4),Y\$ ~:REM expects two values}\yspace\\
An optional string-literal prompt can be printed.
It must be followed by either a semicolon (append the usual question mark) or a
comma (no question mark).\\
\iib{INPUT "Coordinates";X,Y}\\
\iib{INPUT "[press enter]",}
}\yspace

\bit{LET}{
Assigns a value to a variable.
The keyword is optional.
The data types of value and variable must match.
Non-integer numbers are floored when necessary.\\
\iib{LET A\$ = "Hi!" ~:REM assigns "Hi!" to A\$}\\
\iib{X = "A" = "a" ~~:REM assigns -1 to X}\\
\iib{N\%(2.3) = 4.9 ~~:REM assigns 4 to N\%(2)}
}\yspace

\bit{NEXT}{
Bottom of a loop.
Increments the iteration variable by the \ib{STEP} defined when the loop was
initiated.
If the variable then exceeds the termination threshold, the loop terminates and
execution continues onward.
Otherwise, execution returns to the top of the loop.
If the iteration variable is not stated, \ib{NEXT} applies to the most recent
loop.
When the \ib{STEP} is non-negative, `exceeds' means `is greater than'.
When the \ib{STEP} is negative, `exceeds' means `is less than'.
Terminating a loop also terminates any nested loop.
See \ib{FOR} and \ib{GOSUB}.\\
\iib{FOR I = 8 TO 3 STEP -2:~NEXT}\\
\iib{FOR J = -5 TO -2:~FOR K = 1 TO 3:~NEXT K,J}\\
\iib{REM at this point, I = 1, J = -1, K = 4}
}\yspace

\bit{ON\ldots{}GOSUB}{
Branches to the $n$th of a list of subroutines.
If $n$ should be zero, or exceed the number of subroutines, no branch is made,
and execution continues with the next statement.\\
\iib{N = 2:~ON N GOSUB 1000, 2000, 3000}\\
\iib{REM branches to the subroutine at line 2000}
}\yspace

\bit{ON\ldots{}GOTO}{
Branches to the $n$th of a list of destinations.
If $n$ should be zero, or exceed the number of destinations, no branch is made,
and execution continues with the next statement.\\
\iib{ON INT(3*RND(1)+1) GOTO 500, 600, 700}\\
\iib{REM goes to one of these three lines}
}\yspace

\bit{PRINT}{
Sends visible output to the terminal.
Numbers are printed with a trailing space.
Positive numbers also have a leading space (in lieu of a negative number's
sign).
(Use \ib{STR\$} and \ib{MID\$} to suppress these.)
The width of the terminal is divided into `print zones' of 14 spaces each.
Consider:\yspace\\
\iib{PRINT A;BTAB(16)CHR\$(34)SPC(4)":",C D\$E \$;}\yspace\\
The first semicolon separates \ib{A} from \ib{B}, so we don't get the value of
\ib{AB}.
No semicolon is needed after \ib{B}, since the reserved word `\ib{TAB}' cannot
be part of a variable's name.
\ib{TAB(16)} moves the cursor to terminal-column 16, where \ib{CHR\$(34)} prints
a double-quote.
\ib{SPC(4)} moves the cursor four more spaces to the right, where a colon is
printed.
The comma then moves the cursor to the beginning of the next print zone, where
the values of \ib{CD\$} and \ib{E\$} are printed.
(Whitespace is ignored, including within keywords.)
The final semicolon says \emph{not} to print a newline at the end.\yspace\\
Also, while\yspace\\
\iib{PRINT A-B;"X"+"Y";-C}\yspace\\
prints the value of \ib{A-B}, followed by the concatenated string \ib{XY},
followed by the value of \ib{-C}, the output is no different in the absence of
the semicolons and plus sign.
(Since the minus operator does not apply to strings, \ib{"Y"-C} is understood as
two separate terms.)\yspace\\
\ib{TAB}, \ib{SPC} and comma are rapid operations, in that they take essentially
no time even when teletypewriter-effect options are active.
They do not overprint existing text.
This is in contrast to printing spaces, which does take time, and does
overprint.
Cursor positioning and text-wrapping will be inaccurate when special characters,
such as a bell or tab, have been printed to the line.
}\yspace

\bit{READ}{
Assigns the next \ib{DATA} value to a variable. See \ib{RESTORE}.\\
\iib{READ X,Y\$ ~:REM read a number and a string}
}\yspace

\bit{REM}{A remark; the rest of the line is a comment.}
\bit{RESTORE}{Allows \ib{DATA} to be \ib{READ} again.\\
\iib{RESTORE ~~~~~:REM re-READ from the beginning}\\
\iib{RESTORE 600 ~:REM re-READ data from line 600}
}\yspace

\bit{RETURN}{
Returns from a subroutine (to the point of \ib{GOSUB}).
}\yspace

\bit{STOP}{
Terminates execution with a break message.
}

\newpage
\section{Functions}

\bit{ABS(X)}{Absolute value of \ib{X}.}
\bit{ASC(X\$)}{ASCII code of the first character of \ib{X\$}.}
\bit{ATN(X)}{Arctangent of \ib{X}.}
\bit{CHR\$(X)}{The character with ASCII value \ib{X}.}
\bit{COS(X)}{Cosine of \ib{X}.}
\bit{EXP(X)}{Natural exponential function of \ib{X}.}
\bit{INT(X)}{Greatest integer less than or equal to \ib{X} (floor function).}
\bit{LEFT\$(X\$,N)}{The leftmost \ib{N} characters of \ib{X\$}.}
\bit{LEN(X\$)}{The length, in characters, of \ib{X\$}.}
\bit{LOG(X)}{Natural logarithm of \ib{X}.}
\bit{MID\$(X\$,I,N)}{An \ib{N}-character substring of \ib{X\$}, starting from
the \ib{I}th (or all characters from the \ib{I}th onward, if \ib{N} is
omitted).}
\bit{INSTR(N,X\$,Y\$)}{The position of the first occurrence of string \ib{Y\$}
within string \ib{X\$}, not coming before the \ib{N}th character (or the first,
if \ib{N} is omitted).
Returns \ib{0} when \ib{X\$} is empty, or when \ib{Y\$} does not appear.
}
\bit{POS(1)}{Current position of the cursor across the console (the leftmost
column is numbered zero).}
\bit{RND(X)}{A variate from the standard uniform distribution.
Use \ib{X > 0} for a new variate (\ib{X = 1} is the conventional choice),
or \ib{X = 0} for the previous one.
Use \ib{X < 0} to seed the generator with \ib{INT(X)}.
Note that \ib{RND(-1)} on its own is a syntax error; use \ib{A = RND(-1)},
or similar.}
\bit{RIGHT\$(X\$,N)}{The rightmost \ib{N} characters of \ib{X\$}.}
\bit{SGN(X)}{Sign (signum) function of \ib{X}.}
\bit{SIN(X)}{Sine of \ib{X}.}
\bit{SPC(X)}{Advances the cursor \ib{X} spaces to the right (or left, if \ib{X}
is negative).
Can only be used within \ib{PRINT} statements.}
\bit{SQR(X)}{Square root of \ib{X}.}
\bit{STR\$(X)}{Converts \ib{X} to character-string representation.
This has a leading space when \ib{X >= 0}.}
\bit{STRING\$(N,X\$)}{Concatenates \ib{N} copies of \ib{X\$} (or \ib{N} spaces,
should \ib{X\$} be omitted).}
\bit{SYST(1)}{Current system date-time, in seconds.}
\bit{TAB(X)}{Positions the cursor at column \ib{X} (or \ib{-X} spaces in from
the right margin, if \ib{X} is negative).
Can only be used within \ib{PRINT} statements.
Does nothing when the cursor is already at or beyond the requested position.}
\bit{TAN(X)}{Tangent of \ib{X}.}
\bit{TTW(1)}{Width of the BASIC terminal, in characters.
This is normally one less than that of the parent terminal within which it is
running.}
\bit{VAL(X\$)}{Converts \ib{X\$} to the numerical value it represents (the
reverse of \ib{STR\$}).}\yspace\\

The value of the dummy argument to \ib{POS}, \ib{SYST}, and \ib{TTW} must be
either \ib{1} or \ib{0}.
\ib{POS} and \ib{TAB} will be inaccurate when special characters
(\textbackslash{}a, \textbackslash{}b, \textbackslash{}t, etc.) have been
printed since the last carriage return.

\newpage
\section{Identities}

Functions on the left are not implemented directly.\\
Substitute expressions from the right.
\yspace

\mat{PI}{3.1416}
\mat{LOGN(X)}{LOG(X)/LOG(N)}
\mat{SEC(X)}{1/COS(X)}
\mat{CSC(X)}{1/SIN(X)}
\mat{COT(X)}{1/TAN(X)}
\mat{ARCSIN(X)}{ATN(X/SQR(1-X*X))}
\mat{ARCCOS(X)}{1.5708-ATN(X/SQR(1-X*X))}
\mat{ARCSEC(X)}{1.5708*(SGN(X)-1)+ATN(SQR(X*X-1))}
\mat{ARCCSC(X)}{1.5708*(SGN(X)-1)+ATN(1/SQR(X*X-1))}
\mat{ARCCOT(X)}{1.5708-ATN(X)}
\mat{SINH(X)}{(EXP(X)-EXP(-X))/2}
\mat{COSH(X)}{(EXP(X)+EXP(-X))/2}
\mat{TANH(X)}{1-2*EXP(-X)/(EXP(X)+EXP(-X))}
\mat{SECH(X)}{2/(EXP(X)+EXP(-X))}
\mat{CSCH(X)}{2/(EXP(X)-EXP(-X))}
\mat{COTH(X)}{1+2*EXP(-X)/(EXP(X)-EXP(-X))}
\mat{ARSINH(X)}{LOG(X+SQR(X*X+1))}
\mat{ARCOSH(X)}{LOG(X+SQR(X*X-1))}
\mat{ARTANH(X)}{LOG((1+X)/(1-X))/2}
\mat{ARSECH(X)}{LOG((SQR(1-X*X)+1)/X)}
\mat{ARCSCH(X)}{LOG((SQR(1+X*X)*SGN(X)+1)/X)}
\mat{ARCOTH(X)}{LOG((X+1)/(X-1))/2}

\end{document}

% MJL @ Titirangi, 24 July 2022.
% Last edit: 15 April 2026.
% EOF
